Yi Yan - Windows Live

How to become a master PPT.


How to become a master directory PPT. .


Take a look at the approximate outline:.


The main outline of this e-book:. .


1. Foreword.


2, you see the PPT is not like this? . .


3. have you been bad PPT victimized?.


4, Commercial PPT common drawbacks. .


5. Why do PPT?.


6, which occasions for PPT. .


7, two design principles PPT – at a glance.


8, PPT two major design principles - visual. .


9, and typeset text in PPT.


10, PPT in the color design. .


11, PPT animation application.


12, PPT in the graphic effects. .


13, PPT in pyramid concept.


14, PPT in the graphic design. .


15, PPT presentation details.


PPT let us hope that the "clear and visualization," two preliminary perceptual PPT design! . .


File comparison, my blog is not available for download, interested friends can direct mail to me.


zhangzhifs @ gmail. . Com. .


Please indicate in your industry and in which the Forum to see this message, and then I'll give you an FTP address and password.


Have given me over e-mail friends, no need to send, I will notify you by-mail messages released a new version. If the FTP account can not access friends, do not worry account, please change the computer, for place and time to download, I do allow a limited number of concurrent downloads. .


If you feel better you can posted this article, if you look after my PPT nice, you are welcome to reprint this article to your favorite website or blog, and leave the original link: www. .70man. .com (70 man) Web site. So after you posted a new address to me, I will give you a new FTP address and password, you will gain an autumn collection of PPT template library download permissions (PPT Gallery 1000 species, template 100 original works 10!).


Unable to visit a friend in 2007, please visit here to download the 2003 controls 2007:. .


http://www。.microsoft。.com/downloads/details。.aspx?displaylang=zh-cn&FamilyID=941b3470-3ae9-4aee-8f43-c6bb74cd1466。.


Receive the account can not download please check the existence of restrictions on the network, or an excessive number of simultaneous download time to such causes, the solution is for the machine for the network, please change the time or place for friends to download. .


Appendix:.


PPT on the autumn leaves of the text on the do:. .


1. comments trainees make PPT PPT.


(Http://www. .70 Man.. Com /? P = 664). .


2. individual PPT works show – name Bo..


(Http://www. .70 Man.. Com /? P = 741). .


3. individual PPT works-written for the efficient learning method for university students (under 18-year-old ban on watch).


(Http://www. .70 Man.. Com /? P = 1952). .


4. individual PPT works show – an economic crisis era entrepreneurs want to venture to the College.


(Http://www. .70 Man.. Com /? P = 1965). .


5, and a friend on the logic in the conception of the PPT.


(Http://www. .70 Man.. Com /? P = 2231). .


6, product presentation slides of logic design.


(Http://www. .70 Man.. Com /? P = 2247). .


7, 20090718-fast money training of an analysis of a case.


(Http://www. .70 Man.. Com /? P = 2265). .


Reference.


EOF decomposition on the (outer one). .


Recently did some analysis of the data, use the EOF decomposition, but did not find online Chinese related resources, personally think that this thing to get physical understanding of ocean and atmospheric sciences or very important points here on their own understanding, but also please humour.


EOF Decomposition experience that is orthogonal function decomposition, English is also commonly used PCA (Principal Components Analysis) is the principal component analysis. Sprinkle a sesame on the ground, so you use one as small as possible oval ring them up. The long axis of the ellipse is the pile of sesame seeds first principal component, the so-called first leading EOF, also known as Mode-1, short axis, that is the second principal component of the.If this group of Sesame spread quite obedient, basically formed a line, an ellipse you will especially flat, long axis is particularly can describe the characteristics of this group of sesame. Idealistic, Sesame were ranked in a straight line, the ellipse is ideal to Ax + B. Long-shaft and the minor axis, the greater the difference, that is, the long axis of the "variance" to the description, the better. This is the simplest understanding on EOF.


Speaking of the EOF used in atmospheric and ocean, to be mentioned that one person John Kutzbach, Univ. . Wisconsin-Madison's senior scientist. Before EOF is a purely mathematical concept, and not take the ocean-atmosphere boundary, and Kutzbach the first to EOF into the marine atmospheric boundary, completely change the way people began to data analysis and understanding of physical phenomena. Kutzbach is a great legend, there are a lot of pioneering work.For example, although they recognized the Arctic Oscillation Wallace is, in fact Kutzbach very early on discovered the existence of the AO. Again such as Earth Climate System concept of perfection of the system and its subject, he is also the theory of optimum currency areas. Ruddiman the Earth's Climate: Past and Future of the time, the first sentence is dedicated to Kutzbach, a high evaluation of his headed the effort to make the study of Earth's climate a science. . There are many little-known story, is not in this table. In short, we want to drink from the source of. .


On the marine atmosphere of four-dimensional space-time data decomposition, EOF is not only able to find Mode-1, Mode-2, Mode-3 ... well tailored to each Mode time and spatial separation, this turn into a 4D field time field and a 1D 3D spatial field (usually because of z is set to a constant, so the actual often x-y 2D plane field). Then, each Mode has its variance, and corresponds to a spatial pattern (distribution) and a time series (time series).


First look at variance contribution (Variance Contribution). May wish to draw a histogram to see, Take the right side of this picture that thing, this is the first global precipitation variance contribution of Mode 5. You see the first and second on the share of that particular root, the second and third so-so, third and fourth he sent a very small, and future is getting closer and closer. This shows that the Mode-1 and Mode-2 or can be, and the third later in the tail to throw away. We note that here the variance contribution to the Mode-1 only 9. .5%, and is not a good example, if you do, the SST Mode-1 variance will be as large as 30 ~ 40%. Due to the precipitation of marine observation data to the short and so far there is not ideal, plus its own temporal and spatial variation is very large, can explain 9. .5 percent has been very good.


Look at the spatial distribution, it is often said EOF1, EOF2 so. Spatial distribution of the size of the value of each point that its variation, if the value is greater, can be understood as this is particularly lively, always jumped off the average special far. Positive and negative there is no absolute meaning, only that the relative positive and negative phase. Under the Northern Hemisphere winter left SLP (Sea Level Pressure) of EOF1, obviously AO (Arctic Oscillation) pattern.For NOAA, EOF1 often see is that ENSO pattern, see EOF2 could start pattern of others, such as the classic saddle PDO (Pacific Decadal Oscillation).


Winter SLP EOF-1 Winter SLP PC-1. .


See time series, which is often said of PC1, PC2, and so on. The range of the curve represents the variation in time of variation, sometimes draw a bar graph. Some of the high amplitude represents the number of extreme events, such as 82/83, 97/98 El Nino event these strong from SST on PC1. Above the zero or below, said time is in the positive phase or negative phase, such as the picture on the right, and it is SLP EOF1 corresponding time series, from 50's to 90's AO will always keep above the zero line, indicating It often is the form of phase, then if we look at its spatial pattern, really like a warm hat for a deduction on in the Arctic. But after 90 years on the often negative-phase AO there, we said a Climate Shift. .


Understanding EOF should pay special attention to two points that EOF is only a pure mathematics of decomposition, and not necessarily and physical meaning. Sometimes a strong physical mechanisms can appear in several mode, and a mode also has many physical mechanism at work, so understand not pull hard pulling non-what you want and pattern. Second, the marine atmosphere EOF1 often Enso pattern, if you want to see more things, Decadal can be filtered out ENSO, then do the EOF. Commonly used is the FTF (Fourier Transform Function) and the wavelet, you can be bothered with running mean (Ha ha I do not recommend). .


The above is purely personal understanding. Any similarity is purely plagiarism. Reference please indicate the source (fashionable) http://eileenrabbit. .live .com .spaces../in this special thanks to Yan Sun, A program providing original. Hannachi provides two pictures, as well as Prof. prof and discussing their tips.


P. . S. . Outside the paper by Yi Wang completed and released in 2008-01-25. .


1. why the Fourier transform, the physical meaning of?.

Fourier transform is a kind of digital signal processing algorithm is very important. Fourier transform algorithm to know the meaning, we must first understand the meaning of Fourier theory. Fourier theory shows that: any continuous measurement of the timing or signal, can be expressed as a sine wave signals of different frequencies superimposed unlimited. Established under the principle of direct measurement using Fourier transform algorithm to the original signal to additive approach to calculating the signal sine wave signals of different frequency, amplitude and phase. .

And Fourier transform algorithm is the inverse Fourier transform algorithm. The inverse transform essentially is a cumulative process, which can then be individually changed sine wave signal into a signal.

Therefore, we can say, Fourier transform, difficult to deal with the original time domain signal is converted into easy-to-frequency domain signal analysis (frequency spectrum), can use some tools to deal with these frequency domain signal processing. Finally, can use the Fourier frequency domain inverse transform of these signals into time domain signal. .

From the modern mathematical perspective, the Fourier transform is a special kind of integral transform. It can be satisfied that a function into the sinusoidal base function of linear combination or integration. In the different fields of study, Fourier transformation with a variety of different forms, such as continuous Fourier transform discrete Fourier transform.

In mathematics, despite the initial process of Fourier analysis is the analytical thermal analysis as a tool, but it still has the typical way of thinking and analysis of the reduction of the characteristics of doctrine. "Arbitrary" function by some decomposition can be expressed as a linear combination of sine function form, while the sine function in physics is to be fully studied and relatively simple function class: 1. . Fourier transform is a linear operator, if given the appropriate norm, it is unitary operator; 2. . Fourier transform of the inverse transform easily obtained, and the transformation of form and are very similar; 3. .Sine function is the differential base of operations, allowing linear differential equation Solver can translate to constant coefficient of algebraic equation. linear time-invariant of convolution operation for simple product, which provides the calculation of the convolution of a simple means; 5. Discrete Fourier's physical system, frequency is an invariant of nature, and thus the system for complex incentive response can combine their different frequency sinusoidal signal response to obtain; 4. Well-known convolution theorem states: Fourier transform of complex transformation can be calculated using a fast digital computer (the algorithm is called Fast Fourier Transform algorithm (FFT)). .

It is precisely because of the nature of the good, the Fourier transform in physics, number theory, combinatorics, signal processing, probability, statistics, cryptography, acoustics, optics and other fields have a wide range of applications.

2, the physical meaning of the image Fourier transform. .

The frequency of the image is a representation of the image in grayscale variations in intensity targets, is gray in plane space gradient. Such as: large desert in the image is a gray area is changing slowly, the corresponding frequency values are very low; for violent surface attributes transform in border regions in the image is a gray area that fluctuations in the corresponding frequency value is relatively high. Fourier transform in reality have very distinct physical meaning, f is an analog signal energy limited, its Fourier transform is the spectrum of f. From a purely mathematical sense, Fourier transform is a function to convert a series of periodic functions. From the physical effect, the Fourier transform is the image from space domain into the frequency domain, the inverse transform is an image from frequency domain into spatial domain. In other words, the physical meaning of the Fourier transform is to transform the image of gray-scale distribution function of the frequency distribution function for the image, the inverse Fourier transform is to transform the image of the frequency distribution function for the intensity distribution function. .

Fourier transform previously, images (uncompressed bitmap) was in a continuous space (space) sampling a range of points of collection, we are accustomed to using a two-dimensional matrix represents the point on the space, the image can be used by z = f (x, y). Because space is the three-dimensional image is two-dimensional, so space objects in another dimension relationship is represented by the gradient so that we can learn through observation of image objects in three dimensions. Why mention the gradient? Because in fact the image is two-dimensional Fourier transform spectrum is the image gradient map, of course, the points on the spectrum and the image points correspond to the relationship does not exist, even in the case of inalienable frequency is not. Fourier spectrum, we see bright spots of varying brightness, in fact, a point the image point of difference with the strength of neighborhood, that is the size of the gradient, ie, the frequency of the point size (which can be so understanding, image low frequency refers to the point of low gradient, high-frequency part of the opposite). In general, the gradient is the major strong point of the brightness, or brightness of the weak points.This is by observing the Fourier transform of the spectrum, also known as power figure, we can see that the image of energy distribution, if spectrum dark points more, then the actual image is relatively soft (because all the points and neighborhood differences are not large, the gradient is relatively small), on the other hand, if spectrum light points, then the actual image must be sharp and clearly defined boundaries and pixel difference on both sides of the border. On the origin of the shift to the spectrum, we can see an image of a frequency distribution is based on the origin of the circle, a symmetrical distribution. The spectrum frequency shift to the center of the circle can clearly be seen in addition to the frequency distribution of the image, there is the advantage that it can isolate the periodic law of the interference signals, such as sinusoidal interference, an interference with sine, frequency shift from the origin spectrum can be seen in addition to center there to a point outside the center, a collection of symmetric distribution of highlights, this collection is the interference noise produced, this time can be very intuitive place to place through the band stop filter to eliminate interference. .

In addition, I would also like to note the following points:.

1, through the two-dimensional Fourier transform image, the transform coefficient matrix that:. .

If the transformation matrix Fn origin at the Center, its spectrum energy concentration distribution in transform coefficient near the center of the short-wave (figure in shadow areas). If the two-dimensional Fourier transform matrix Fn's origin at the upper-left corner, then image signal energy will be concentrated in the coefficient matrix of four corners. This is due to the nature of two-dimensional Fourier transform itself. It also indicates a low frequency energy to focus the image.

2, change the image at the origin after the corners before the translation is low, the brightest, low-frequency shift after the middle part, the brightest, high brightness shows a large low-frequency energy (increase angle larger). .

Fourier transform applications in image processing.

Fourier transform in image processing are very, very role. Because Fourier analysis is not only involved in many aspects of image processing, Fourier improved algorithm, such as discrete cosine transform, gabor wavelets in image processing and has important component. .

Impression that the Fourier transform in image processing on the following topics have an important role:.


1. . Image enhancement and image denoising. .


Most of the noise are images of high frequency components, low-pass filter to filter out high frequency — — noise; edge is also the high frequency components of the image, you can add high frequency components to enhance the edges; the original image.


2. . Segmentation of edge detection. .


Extract image high frequency components.


3. . Image Feature Extraction:. .


Shape features: Fourier descriptors.


Texture: directly through the Fourier coefficients to calculate the texture features. .


Other features: the eigenvalues of the extraction for Fourier transform to the characteristics of a translation, scaling, rotation, not denatured.


4. . Image compression. .


You can directly through the Fourier coefficients to compressed data; common discrete cosine transform is the Fourier transform of the transformation;.

Fourier transform. .


Fourier transform is the time domain signal into different frequency sine signals or superimposed cosine function. Continuous circumstances require the original signal for a single period meet the absolute requirement. Discrete Fourier transform must exist. Gonzales Edition.


<图像处理>Explain the very image of the inside: an appropriate analogy is to compare the Fourier transform of a glass prism. Prism can be divided into different colors of light physical apparatus, the color of each component by the wavelength (or frequency) to decide. Fourier transform can be seen as mathematical prism, will function based on the frequency decomposition for the different components. When we consider the light, the discussion of its spectrum or the frequency spectrum. Similarly, the Fourier transform allows us to analyze the frequency components through a function. .


Fourier transform many excellent properties. For example, linear, symmetry (can be used in the calculation of the signal's Fourier transform);.

Times have changed sex: the function when the shift in the time domain, frequency domain corresponds to its phase shift generated additional, and range of the spectrum remains unchanged;. .

Shift: the function field multiplied by e ^ jwt, formant w. This is also called a theorem, the communication inside the signal frequency division multiplexing required for this feature (signal modulation will be different to different frequencies at the same time transfer).


Convolution theorem: time domain frequency domain convolution is equal to the product; time domain frequency domain convolution product is equal to (attach a factor). (Image processing which this is a key). .

Signal in the frequency domain representation.


In the frequency domain, the higher the frequency the faster the rate of change shows the original signal; frequency of the smaller shows the original signal more gently. When the frequency is 0, said DC signal, has not changed. Therefore, the frequency of the size of the response to slow variations of the signal. Explain the high frequency part of signal mutations, while the low frequency signal components determine the overall image. .


In image processing, frequency-response to the changes in spatial grayscale image intensity, which is a grayscale image, but also of the pace of change is the image of gradient sizes. On the image, the image's edge is a mutation, changes quite rapidly, so the response in the frequency domain is the high frequency components; image noise in the most cases is the high frequency part of the image changes the parts of the gentle low-frequency component. In other words, the Fourier transform available to observe the image, you can transfer images from a gray-scale distribution and transformation into a frequency distribution up to observe the image of the feature. Written little that is, the Fourier transform provides a free conversion from spatial to frequency channels. Image processing, the following concepts are important:. .

Image frequency: image mutation; in some cases the information that the edge of the image, and in some cases means more noise, is a mixture of both;.


Low frequency components: flat part of the image changes, that is, image contour information. .


High-pass filter: low-frequency component of the image so that, through the high frequency components.


Low-pass filter: contrast with high-pass, so images to suppress high frequency, low frequency through. .


Band-pass filter: makes the image in a certain part of frequency information passed, other too low or too high is suppressed.


There are a band stop filter is band-pass anti. .

Template operations and convolution theorem.


Operation in the time domain to do the template is actually the image convolution. Template image processing operation is a very important process, a lot of image processing, such as enhanced / Noise (both could not tell), commonly used in edge detection. According to the convolution theorem, convolution in time domain and frequency domain is equivalent to the product. Therefore, the image made in the time domain is equivalent to template operation on the image to do in the frequency domain filtering. .


For example, a mean value of the template, its frequency response as a low pass filter; the time within the image to make the average filter is equivalent to the frequency used for image frequency response mean template on the image of the frequency response for a low-pass filter.

Image. .


Image noise is suppressed the noise of the image. Therefore, if the amount of noise is high, from the perspective of the frequency domain, it is necessary to use a low-pass filter on an image for processing. Through low-pass filter can inhibit the high frequency components of the image. But this situation often leads to inhibition of edge information. Common denoising template has a mean value of the template, such as Gaussian template. Both filters are in the local area suppression of high frequency components of the image, and blur the image edge also suppresses noise. There is also a non-linear filtering-median filter. Median filter on pulse-type noise is very good to get rid of. Because the pulse points are the point mutations, after sorting the output value, then the maximum points and minimum points, which can be removed. Gaussian noise, median filter less effective. .

Salt-and-pepper noise: salt and pepper with median filtering to remove. You can also use the means to achieve some results, but will cause fuzzy edges.


Gaussian white noise: white noise in the frequency domain are distributed, as more difficult. .


Gonzales Edition image processing P185: arithmetic mean filter and geometric mean filter (especially the latter), better suited to deal with Gaussian or uniform random noise. Harmonic mean filter is more suitable for processing of impulse noise.

Image enhancement. .


Sometimes I feel image enhancements and image smoothing is a rightness of Antinomies, image enhancement is often a need to enhance the edges of the image for better display from this need to increase the frequency of the image. While the image noise is to eliminate the noise of the image, also is to inhibit the high frequency components required. Sometimes these two also refers to the same thing. For example, the Elimination of noise in the image display effects a significant upgrade, then this is the same mean.


Common methods of image enhancement contrast stretching, histogram equalization, image enhancement, etc.. The first two are in the spatial pixel-based transformation, followed by one in the frequency domain. I understand that is sharpening the image with the image directly in the high-pass filtered component, that is the image of edge effects. Contrast stretching and histogram equalization is to improve the contrast of the image, that is, make the image look more obvious differences between some, I think, after this treatment after the image should be enhanced image of the high frequency components, so the details of the image greater difference. Also introduces some noise. .

This article is reproduced from CSDN blog, please indicate the source of information: http://blog. .csdn. .net/kofsky/archive/2008/09/20/2955823. .aspx.

www. . Amazon. . Cn (Joyo). .

Www. .dangdang. .com (dangdang).

www. . China-pub. . Com (China Interactive Publishing Network, looks like there are many places, especially inside the book, but I never bought). .

Http://download. .csdn. .net (there are many e-book download, but I think after the cnblogs will more …).

http://books. . Google. . Cn / (Google's Book Search). .

Www. .douban. .com (broad beans).

www. . Verycd. . Com (there are also many e-book download). .

Http://www. .xunlei. .com/(Thunder (have a bookmark tag, you can download a lot of books)).

http://ebookee. . Org / (foreign websites, many of the English original e-book download). .

Http://www. .nationalacademies. .org/(foreign websites, many of the original English version eBook download).

Origin is not in Wuhan, accounts less than 10 years in Wuhan, sent a letter back to countries of origin require passports to verify account information, said that passports were told over a month's time. If so, I can only eat cold day lily, so prior to the passport issuing process, save points, character, prayer is not because of passport delays things, oh God. .


1. prepare materials: account + card. Students ' collective accounts to school security branch loan accounts. Just starting to get a Passport account, security grounds lend of sister according to the book, only to be proof of the Graduate School of lending (undergraduate faculty prove), bitter requests cannot be accommodated, had to go back to the lab open ID lost certificate (forgive me, I hurry, graduate school, long, a very pleasant day not exhausted me also to hot I ~, the worst is the only school circles, it is not the case) change again to defend the vest. Do not have to prove that the 100 block of deposit to take care of transfer, in accordance with the rules ~ ~ ~.


2. . Handled Location: Wuchang District, so to the Exit and Entry Administration of Wuhan South Reception Center, bus stop to East Lake Development Zone, Optics Valley Convention and Exhibition Center on the first floor, next to Guangdong Development Bank. .


3. Fill in a form, copy. The door leading to the right hand side of Chinese citizens (private) passports for the application, I have previously downloaded, just format and content of the wrong, so I went to bring or copying accounts and cards cost $ 1.


4. . Call number: ATM in the lobby corner office, touch screen reportedly struck by "application documents?" (Not very spiritual), take number, because the camera quickly, so you can go first and call number camera, save wait time. .


4. Photo: follow the instructions to the front row on the left side of the innermost room photography, dark clothes, money photographing, 4 sheets of 30 $ for one minute, a Kind of MM charges, possibly because the charges are very interesting, so expensive, good attitude, and laughing anyway.


5. . Processing. Equal time to the table in the photo posted on the door of a good photo, called after the handle number. Submitted a photo, police officers MM will help you cut and paste it, there are accounts and ID card want to look at, and then to the next 7 leading 200 of the billing platform, go right on the 4th of Guangdong Development Bank, the direct cross-Taiwan fee (bank are exempted No. 4 straight sets which you can make payments), receipt submitted to the 7th station together. .


6. Etc card. Old Wuhan within 15 days, 10 days basically get, account for less than 10 years, back to their country of origin review, inform me one month later. I ~, ask whether you can do before, whether it can be expedited. Been advised of the condition does not meet all expedited, one week later sent a letter to the of origin city exit sent to handle, so time is essentially 15 +?, crazy ~ ~ ~ Bangkok, we have met?.


No way, can not sit back and think of a classmate in his home city public security bureau in Arabic, quickly call contacts, time to hurry to the Immigration Department about our city comrades hastened to write back, hope to schedule buttoned. God sister, god Gu Shen Po, help me, Amen ~ look at my hard copy posting, let me overflow RP from it! . .

Thrown brick throwing bricks.

ALFY recommended for a long time and has not science, sub-point materials, such as free time (of these years) to understand understanding. .


1. download and install.

Installation and use python as very simple. The latest release version of python is now 2. .4. .2, you can go to the python website, or you can click on this link to download the Windows msi installation file can be selected when installing the installation directory and components, can be a common default. installed in Windows can be started directly in the word "menu of program group to find new Python group with IDE, IDLE, simple but practical. after installation, no additional settings, it can be used for. ..

Click to run IDLE, open the main console PYTHON. Here you can enter python statement to execute. . For example, type print 'hello', will print hello. Can use help command to request help, such help (int) will set out a detailed description of the type int, if you want to write more complex programs that can be in the main menu -> File-> New Window to open a new editor window In this window, you can write a complete program, co-exist for the. .Py Python source files, you can easily perform. for example, enter the following programs:.

#! Usr / bin / python. .


def hello():。.


print 'hello'. .

hello() 。.

Press ctrl-s save the file, any file name, extension. . Py, press F5 implementation of the program, should the word hello in the main console output. . .


Thus, python has been installed, you can put to use!.

2. . Tools (IDE, etc.). .

Python installation package with the IDE, the name is IDLE, python creator Guido created, simple and practical, in addition I tried quite good as well as complete SPE, with comparable features powerful, I use it every time you encounter some minor problems, unable to open the program already exists, you can try if you use eclipse, you can use this plug-in PvDev. for more information, please see the following link:.

# Python IDE Introduction (English). .


# List of python wiki Editor (English) more comprehensive and detailed list of the various platforms, covering out of many editors are not only for python use. ..


# Python wiki the IDE list (in English) is not described in the above list more, but recommended a number of detailed evaluation and presentation of the article. .

3. learning resources.

Here are some more good learning site, contains information sufficient to learn the python. Resources of your sperm is not expensive and more recommended here is I think a more comprehensive and useful site, as long as the good use of these sites, most of the problems can be resolved. There are many good sites, among them most of them have links to each other, not one by one listed here. . .

Domestic:.


# CPUG (China python user group). .


CPUG was formally established in Python users, civil society organizations in the majority of Python enthusiasts of Python for the promotion and development. Now provides Python CPUG-related resources and services...

# Woodpecker Pythonic open source community. .


Should belong to a community, CPUG its running multiple projects, most things can be found here...


# IBM DeveloperWorks developer community. .


The cattle were written article, and very readable, and many have the Chinese translation, python, python's "lovely" series is the best series of articles, you can search directly in the search bar on the article: python.

# Wikiepdia. .


There is a detailed introduction to python, as well as multiple resource link. English wikiepdia has more information...

Foreign:. .


# Python main station.


The most comprehensive python website, in addition to python download, there is news, and provide the versions of the online documentation, FAQ, tutorials, beginners guide, book introduction, and many, many useful links. Learning python I think this is the most frequented places should be. With this site, basically everything can be found. . .

# O'Reilly Python DevCenter.


Including a wide range of article topics, including databases, distributed computing, graphics and video, Internet and so on. There are a number of books published in Readings section. . .


4. tutorial.

Recommended:. .


# A byte of python, the Chinese translation is called "short course" Python, translation by Shen Jie Yuan, understandable, it is good reading material to use, especially for want to spend the least amount of time to learn some of the shortcomings of human. does not fully cover characteristics; if you want in-depth depends on other books.


# Python Cookbook (Chinese, python recipe) solutions to programming problems, it is good. .

Other:.


# Installation manual that comes with, you can open from the Start menu. Inside the founder of python Guido with the preparation of a detailed tutorial. . .


# Dive Into Python-Python from novice to pro (English version, python beginners to master-slave), each part has a recommended reading list, very considerate...


# How to Think Like a Computer Scientist Learning with Python (in English, is a series of 1, learning python) does not scan, can not comment. .


# Python master station list of books.

5. . Manual. .

# Python Web manual.


# Install the language that comes with manual chm format. .

Mountaineering activities to well-planned security, usually involves an understanding of the terrain. Traditionally a contour map is most commonly orographic description tools, contour map making approach starts from the 18th century in Europe, the first to use triangulation method to select the key representative locations, such as the mountain, according to the recursive approach gradually, measure its latitude and longitude and height (from a known point, next to an unknown point in pushing), these points constitute the so-called geodetic control points, we often see on the top of the mountain region of the triangle is the cement pile. (Our triangle point about 15 000, consuming human pilots).


Our mapping personnel (who may be the earliest of the outdoor person the 50-60's exploration, transportation, equipment, poor, very hard). .


The premier is a member of the geological past.


U.S. Geological Survey personnel in the control point mapping measurement (U.S. imperialism is a luxury, spend 60 years on the helicopter, so they measured faster). .


These isolated points, of course, is not enough to draw the contour of the entire region. By mapping the players go to every point measured again obviously not realistic, a common practice is dispatched aircraft with special cameras (it is said that to 2 million) for aerial.


No point using photographs of the same area photographed on the ground in a three-dimensional imaging of optical instruments (stereoscopic projector) is displayed, drawing contour lines, before doing this stuff to rely on artificial eye. .


The figure for the u.s. Geological Survey's staff in the use of stereoscopic projectors handle maps.


Drawing contour lines will be added alone can not express the landscape features, such as cliffs, Peak, rivers, roads, buildings, vegetation, residential areas, which have to rely on artificial field mapping and determine to complete. .


On the map in the contour has been painted with a callout.


Contour is easy to understand, the expression of the common terrain quite good - at least for experienced people like this, he is very easy to print in the print media, if coupled with color and shadow rendering, visualization can improve. .


Traditional drawing methods, human consumption greatly, drawing cycle length (4-5 years), such as China and the United States of the country, at the age of 5, 1960, and surveying thousands people consume a large amount of money (our Western mapping project 1: 50000 figure budget spent $ 30 million RM.


Map difficult to update. Therefore, in the United States Geological Survey, the traditional approach has been basically abandoned. .


Now is a computer-based geographic information systems (GIS) for the era, the contour maps started to show weakness, because it essentially is a raster image, the computer is very difficult to use, even with contour vectorization, extracting information from it is very inconvenient, demand will have a new solution.


Description of the digital age terrain-DEM. .


Dem (Digital Elevation Model) record terrain is another set of ideas, in DEM, no longer cable concept, there is only one single geographical points, these points can be geographically uniform distribution such as grid, such as SRTM, or non-uniform distribution, it is said that China is documented in the DEM is each point longitude and altitude.


European Space Agency's Global DEM rendering color separation map (white highest). .


The original diagram see http://earth. .esa. .int/satelliteimages/753/DEM_ACE_30sec_RA_or. .jpg.


DEM and contour lines are very easy compared to computer graphics processing, a ready-made algorithm to generate the contour map of DEM, slope map, or aerial images combined with the completion of three-dimensional terrain visualization (the most common example is the google earth), flexibility in the use and display contour model is completely unable to resist it. In the military field, the benefits are not generally apparent, Tomahawk cruise missiles digital terrain matching, automatic terrain helicopter alert system sounds very God, in fact, rely on the built-in real-time DEM database query completed. .


Cruise equipped TERCOM (terrain contour matching) system diagram.


GIS, a very popular topic is how to have some contour map library is converted to DEM data (DEM our foundation is all about dealing out). .


Now that you have a GPS and computers, airplanes and even flying can rely on the GPS coordinates of the point and the camera, or laser range finder directly through terrain mapping. Precision can reach m level.


Figure: airborne laser terrain mapping systems (LIDAR), laser range finder of the aircraft flew over carrying a regional topographic information can be collected, the region DEM / contour map can even be no less than the plane. .


Traditional triangular NET or useful, but has not necessarily to use transit, if the request is not particularly high, you can use GPS to determine the point coordinates.


The picture shows the explorers carrying Trimble's GPS this thing is not affected by climate, terrain effects, saving manpower, high efficiency, it also used the National Mapping Agency. .


Our 2006 completed Western mapping project (completed the traditional approach is difficult to accomplish on the Tibetan plateau, the Tarim basin 1: 50000 topographic maps) using the SPOT5 satellite measured DEM data combined with GPS ground control point to generate contour map. This is the future trend, i.e. DEM metadata as terrain, contour maps, if necessary, you can always build from DEM data.


Our dilemma - where the map? . .


A lot of time playing outdoors people are very firm believe contour map is the best map. For mountaineering, if there is a good contour map, such as large scale 1:25000 map, in general, are indeed good enough, unfortunately, due to the technology and confidentiality constraints, 1: 25,000 nationwide contour map does not exist, 1:50000 contour map is confidential, even 1:200000 topographic map is a secret, so climbers can only look at large across the Pacific Ocean U.S. imperialism Moon Avenue of the National 1:24000 topographic maps open flow of drool. .


Our 1: 25000 topographic map coverage (source: National Bureau of surveying and mapping), you can see, the basic non-covered mountains.


Standard USGS 1:24000 map of the United States sample --- not money, free download. .


After the founding of our country's mapping work first received technical assistance from the Soviet expert, responsible for the training of Soviet aircraft and pilots directly participated in the survey, the Soviet Union have detailed topographic map of China and not surprising.


819 gun did not go off, crashing fall of the Soviet Union, which is one of the major consequences of decades of painstaking efforts of the Soviet Red Army contour map library world to be tons of bulk sale of departure, after scanning the Internet public sale or free download including the covering most parts of China 1:100,000 contour map, in the Sino-Soviet border, there are boutique 1:50000, 1:100,000 map is free seems to be limited to the border region of Xinjiang, the Mainland of 1: 100000 U.S. takes knife to buy, even if you are willing to buy more or less satisfactory degree, eyeful of the Russian problem is a headache。.


Soviet topographic map 1:100,000 sample (Xinjiang Kanas). .


USSR 1: 50000 topographic map sample (Xinjiang Baihu).


Free Mainland 1:200000 map is a rough mountain, I now find that the only purpose is to see the stream and some local villagers have little use for the old mountain road. .


USSR 1: 200000 topographic map sample (tianmu).


Very rare map of the Soviet Union, in order to make sure it is not accurate enough, and our Japanese friends mobilized. .


Photo in Xinjiang hetian arresting illegal mapping of Japan (Japan information technology Institute of the big forest trip and his students), they are using GPS calibration in the hands of Russian topographical map 1: 100000, completed a six-point position.


Forced a handful of advanced-SRTM. .


It can be considered days who, in February 2000, the United States sent a shuttle, load the advanced synthetic aperture radar (SAR), after 11 days of flight, once completed almost global coverage data and mapping of elevation, the altitude data in the world, NASA's website you can open the download, putting aside the Americans behind this global ambition is not evil, it's really great technology is an unprecedented achievement. This task is called the SRTM (Shutter Radar Topograph Mission), so we usually put the SRTM data, also known as public. Most of the data resolution of 90 meters, 90 meters distance on the ground that only one data point, but it is already higher than previously published U.S. Geological Survey data on the global GTOPO30 DEM accuracy too much (1 km a point). .



Smithsonian ' s Udvar-Hazy Air and Space Museum's use of the radar antenna SRTM, folding ladder-shaped bracket can be stretched up to 60 m.


SRTM C-band data coverage, to remove the red and black, are all there. .


SRTM was supposed to be a professional geographic information workers interested in everything, but do not see China topographic map of the climbers will soon discover his amateur usage: generate a contour map, such as the most common GlobalMapper can handle, plus the source of mysterious china. 60 million place names China .name (mistakes) and other sources of communes and vector map overlay, edited by hand, now the main contour mapping on the Internet is just so. That most people want is up 50's level contour map, but have no choice but to spend the 21st century level of DEM, the one forced to advanced. .


This is an example of the SRTM maps generated.


Sampling interval 90 meters up is very regrettable that, and with his site generates a map to the mountains should have control over the brother of experiences: local small terrain changes. Such as very small peaks are not shown. NASA later made public in North America, 30-meter resolution SRTM data. U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Bureau 10m resolution DEM (NED) can be downloaded (source complex, most likely with the old aerial photo processing out of), Japan has long had commercial available data on the 50-meter resolution DEM (by vector-based maps are 1:25000).More than 90 m data far too much, the State Bureau of surveying and mapping seems to have a 40-meter DEM data for China, but the classification level than topographic 1: 50000 h: level (top secret), so delusional amateurs will not be able to get away, revealing the prison to squat. I've read some articles in the 10 m resolution DEM rendering of terrain, water poured down. But envy, is now able to open to get the best quality of Chinese elevation data is 90 m horizontal, both good and bad you can only use it.


This is AeroMetric company with airborne laser range finder system (LIDAR) DEM data obtained for each tree top of the tree are clearly visible. .


The potential of the SRTM.


A friend will ask, which is 90 m SRTM data space, this middle of the 90 m contour line is blank how it generated? The answer is the interpolation (interpolation), which is based around the value of those points, calculate the gap value, and the role of the algorithm to enlarge a photo in photoshop is the same, only that there are many variables in the algorithm. .


Interpolation is the original diagram on the left side of the DEM data, the right is the interpolation of more "tight" data.


(Taken from http://www.. Geovista.. Psu. .edu/sites/geocomp99/Gc99/082/gc_082.. Htm). .


If the SRTM as on the Earth's outer contour of the analog-to-digital converter, the traditional digital signal processing algorithms principle also applies to DEM data interpolation, interpolation algorithm has two branches, one based on the classic digital signal resampling (resampling), this set of algorithms in whole on the basis of electronic information, applies to any data (not strict). One is based on the model of interpolation algorithm (model based interpolation), apply to have prior knowledge of the data. Here only discuss the first, the DEM data as a two-dimensional spatial sampling signal, within a short distance the terrain with dramatic changes in the DEM data is in fact high-frequency signals, Nyquist sampling theorem tell us that he was 90 m resolution SRTM can contain the signal period can not be less than 180 meters, the main task of interpolation is preserved as much as possible in the high frequency signal, to do some data processing will find a very high order interpolating the SRTM contour map of the details can be marked stronger than GlobalMapper generated contour, more on google map generated contour.Total close to 1: 100000 topographic detail level.


Left: second-order linear interpolation Right: fourth-order cubic interpolation, the right course, more natural mountain contours. .


Some people do not trust the contour SRTM interpolation that however is an estimate of what the algorithm is the same, and I could not agree more, I believe there are mining potential of the SRTM. Even if the high potential of FIR interpolation dug, and adding model-based interpolation algorithm may still significantly increase the degree of realism SRTM data interpolation, Kriging interpolation was studied and the bicubic interpolation (4-order curve interpolation, is photoshop, ACDSee in zoom picture algorithm) SRTM 90m data processing, result in the same area of the real SRTM 30m data comparison, Kriging interpolation optimum. .


In accordance with the national survey and mapping for planning, national DEM 25m interval basis library has built up, but I see on the website of the National Bureau of surveying and mapping, mapping depends on the existing 1: 50000 topographic contour vector linear interpolation, alas, do not say anything.


For example, google earth in the elevation data is an obvious 2-order linear interpolation, which is the traditional triangle-based 3-D object rendering algorithm to decide, if the use of high surface rendering replaced, GE will have a significant effect of terrain display upgrading, high surface rendering of the new cards have been supported, and may join to become the next Microsoft DirectX11 standard, interested can look at ATI's R600 graphics chips of the tessellation technologies old and new technology demonstration map rendering Snow difference. .


This is an enhanced curve interpolation generated 3D terrain.


Do not like to see the text, read this video you will understand. .


http://www。.youtube。.com/watch?v=Bcalc8UoJzo。.


Better SRTM data? . .


Direct from NASA to steal data from 30m (I strongly appeal to care about homeland, outdoor career do this patriotic hackers.


), There may be got even more precise SRTM data? . .


Year ahead, in the SRTM mission actually mount the 2 group a major radar, a group of c-band radar acquisition of global 80% of the area, a group of x-band radar because the installation location, only 30% of the collected, the task returns, c-band radar data from NASA's own processing, the result is a .C, SRTM. X-band radar data from Germany, the Italian Space Agency, the result is a .X. SRTM. Said that for security reasons, other than the original one second resolution, the U.S. data have been deliberately reduced to 3 seconds resolution (in my view, this obviously does not want white people to take advantage of). .


X-band radar wavelength shorter, theoretically, resolving power than the c-band, the German version of the SRTM. .X data (30 m resolution) public sale on the Internet (www. .dlr. srtm/.de/), it is regrettable that the area covered by very strange. like a stalker.


SRTM-X data coverage in Asia. .


I tried out his online programs at the same time, China has no data, does not exclude that I make a mistake, TX are welcome again to verify that.


What chance? Duplication may be the result of U.S. imperialism, the lower-resolution version of the two publishers, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), more interesting is that, JPL and the NGA algorithm not the same, JPL's algorithm is the height of the average of nine points among a point as high, while the NGA is the middle of a point directly use the original height. This brings us to another possibility: whether this difference can dig out more details. .


From the point of view of signal processing, JPL's nine-point average is a very bad fall sampling algorithm, resulting in unnecessary loss of high frequency algorithms are not NGA: no low-pass filter will result spectral decimation of aliasing (alias), if we can take advantage of the low frequency information of JPL data as a reference, you can put the NGA data mixed raw details..


Future? . .


The use of an associated SRTM idea: now that you can use it in a computer-generated maps and prints, so why not directly on the handheld GPS devices with it? portable device processing capacity has been so powerful, can do real-time contour maps based on dem generation and positioning, any time, any weather that can understand their location in the mountain. Wenchuan after the earthquake disaster in the crash of the helicopter if there is based on 17-meter DEM of the terrain warning devices, how can The blind in the fog crashed into the hillside fire bars, want to come is a pity, this is the one man in the commercial vehicle can be Navigator of the SRTM data on the use of public functions to achieve. .


Sandel Avionics helicopter company in 2009 exhibition has just demonstrated ST3400H helicopter terrain awareness and warning system (HTAWS), built-in is 90m resolution DEM data for display on the red part of the helicopter positions high risk area.


With the portable device graphics capabilities, and even can set aside such a plane contour performance mode, and google earth type of three-dimensional terrain display, this way of working, the latest in the garmin colorado series of GPS has been there . .


Colorado 400t Taiwan Yushan, tell the truth, there is no satellite photos for texture, this effect was really rough.


Navigon most unbelievably is also introduced based on the SRTM data, with three-dimensional terrain display car GPS. .


Future open to the public, or commercially available DEM data accuracy would also increase the classic contour maps + compass mode, will was relying on the Big Dipper and the Moon, the same judge position technology, declined as a complementary means.


Add a little needed compass inclination calculation program. .


http://www。.ngdc。.noaa。.gov/geomagmodels/Declination。.jsp 。.

Geostatistics is a spatial distribution of regionalized variables theory, study the spatial variation of natural phenomena and spatial structure of a discipline. It is aimed as mineral resources, biological communities, landscapes and so has a specific geographical distribution and development of statistics. As the first leader in the application of geosciences, so called geostatistics. The main theory of geostatistics is the Law statisticians G. . Matheron created, through continuous improvement, and improvement has become a solid theoretical basis and practical value of mathematical tools.Geostatistics a wide range of applications, not only of the spatial distribution of the data structure and randomness, spatial correlation and dependencies, spatial patterns and variations that may be available for optimal spatial data for unbiased interpolation, and simulation of spatial data of discreteness and volatility. Geostatistical analysis of spatial variability and the structure of the variation of the function and its parameters, and spatial local estimates of Kriging interpolation of two main parts, is currently in geophysics, geology, ecology, soil, etc. Application of meteorological fields is still rare, mainly using Kriging method precipitation, temperature and other elements of the optimal interpolation of the study and impact of climate on agriculture area. .

Geostatistics originated in the 1960s, early mainly applies to the phenomenon of space geology research and space. Its founder and its simple Marheron is defined as a natural phenomenon of the random function on investigation and estimation. Which mainly using geostatistical random function on undefined behavior for exploratory data analysis, combined with sampling points provide information on the unknown point estimation and simulation. Geostatistics was originally used in mining and oil exploration, but with the traditional statistical methods in spatial data analysis of the powerless, more and more involved in spatial analysis of the subject turned to statistical research tool. Today, geostatistics has been widely used in geography, ecology, environmental science, soil science and many other fields of study. In particular the development of GIS spatial data brought great wealth, more and more scientists to turn to statistical analysis of spatial data. Directory. .

Geostatistics-definition.


Geostatistics is a spatial distribution of regionalized variables theory, study the spatial variation of natural phenomena and spatial structure of a discipline. It is aimed as mineral resources, biological communities, landscapes and so has a specific geographical distribution and development of statistics. As the first leader in the application of geosciences, so called geostatistics. The main theory of geostatistics is the Law statisticians G. . Matheron created through continuous improvement and improvement has become a solid theoretical basis and practical value of mathematical tools.Geostatistics a wide range of applications, not only of the spatial distribution of the data structure and randomness, spatial correlation and dependencies, spatial patterns and variations that may be available for optimal spatial data for unbiased interpolation, and simulation of spatial data of discreteness and volatility. Geostatistical analysis of spatial variability and the structure of the variation of the function and its parameters, and spatial local estimates of Kriging interpolation of two main parts, is currently in geophysics, geology, ecology, soil, etc. Application of meteorological fields is still rare, mainly using Kriging method precipitation, temperature and other elements of the optimal interpolation of the study and impact of climate on agriculture area. .

Statistics-regional variable theory.


To the object of statistical variables for the regionalization, that is variable in spatial distribution. Usually has two properties of a regionalized variable: ① a point in the local, regional values are random variables; ② of the region as a whole, there is an overall or average of the structure, adjacent values of regionalized variables with the correlation between the expression of structure. The two characteristics of regionalized variables is random and structural. Based on this, to the introduction of random functions and their statistical probability distribution model as the theoretical foundation of regionalized variables examined. Regionalized variable can be seen as a real random variable (realization)。 For the purposes of a random variable, you must have known more realistic premise, we can summarize the probability distribution of the random function.

The terms of the geological data, often we only have a sample point, they can be seen as a real random variable, so there is no way to infer the probability distribution. To this end, some assumptions must be developed that stationarity assumption in the context of a local distribution is uniform. .

Core geostatistics-theory.


The main purpose of geostatistics is to study the structure of spatial autocorrelation (or spatial variation structure) of the detection and estimation and simulation of variable values. Regardless of which one purpose, to statistical analysis De core is based on the sample points to determine the object of study (a variable) Sui Kongjianweizhi Erbian Hua's Guilv, calculated on this basis, the value of unknown points of Shuxing. This law is the variance function.Generally, we use the sampling point and variograms formula derived from sample points of variation function (experimental variogram, sample variance function), the curve fitting to experience variance function (emperical variogram). Observation of the distribution of image variogram, looking for geostatistics provides a theoretical model or more theoretical model (basic model) for fitting linear combinations. The common theoretical models are: linear model, spherical model, index model, Gaussian model, exponential model, etc..

To Statistics - Analysis of steps. .


Using geostatistical analysis of basic space include the following steps, i.e. data exploratory analysis, a quantitative model of spatial continuity, unknown point property value estimates, on an unknown local and space overall uncertainty of the forecast. Users can choose according to their own needs up to the middle of an entry. Exploratory data analysis, primarily through the frequency distribution charts, scatter charts, maps, statistical data on the distribution of a preliminary investigation. This process is the most easy-to-find problem is data gathered, as well as extreme outliers. Typically, you use the appropriate transformation, such as logarithmic transform to resolve.

Geostatistics - research methods. .


Geostatistics research methods including local valuation, uncertain projections, stochastic simulation and multiple point geostatistics four parts.

First, the valuation (estimation). .

Applied geostatistics initially in the mining sector, as an essential mineral reserves calculation method was fruitful. In geostatistics, kriging (Kriging) recognised estimation method. In fact, it is also a kind of generalized least-squares regression algorithm and its optimal target is defined as the error of expectation to 0, minimal variance. Includes simple kriging (Simple Kriging), ordinary kriging (Ordinary Kriging), trend kriging.

(Kriging with a trend model), factor Krieger (Factorial Kriging), co-kriging (Co Kriging), block kriging (Block Krigin-g) and so on. .

Second, local forecast uncertainty (local uncertainty).

Geostatistical estimates of the main function is to obtain an optimal unbiased valuation, the valuation is given for each error variance, to indicate the uncertainty. .

The advantage of this approach is relatively simple, only need to master the association between the variables. But the drawback is:.

① that the error distribution is symmetrical, but in reality, the low areas are often overestimated, and the high value area is often underestimated. .

② believes that the error only depend on the shape of real value, regardless of the specific effects of each value, the so-called tongfang poor sexual.

But in fact is a large value and small value surrounded Point, the valuation error is smaller than the value of being surrounded by two with the size of the point of valuation errors larger. Therefore, we should really take into account the points around the estimated value of the sample point itself, namely the use of conditional probability model to infer uncertainty. There are usually two ways: parametric method (Gaussian method the public) and non-parametric methods (indicator Kriging method). .

All the Gauss method (MultiGaussianapproach): so far, this is the most widely used parametric methods. It is assumed that the probability distribution of the research area can be used for a unified formula expression, the ultimate probability depends on the relevant parameters. Corresponds to all the Gauss method, that is, the mean and variance. We are using kriging method to estimate these two parameters, while taking advantage of the smooth frequency distribution diagram of the sample points to smooth, increase their probability distribution function.

Since public distribution of the Gaussian method requires more to be standard normal and did not consider the maximum and minimum of the association between relationship. Instructions for the variation of sample points do not support the dual Gaussian distribution function, or as a key supporting information does not satisfy the public between the main variables of Gaussian distribution, then requires the use of indicator Kriging method. .

Indicator kriging (IndicatorKriging): use indicator kriging estimate unknown points of uncertainty, the first step is to make information from various sources indicates the encoding. Namely, the use of different thresholds of the original data into the appropriate size of the interval, the interval between the point of the Association and its different affiliate relationships. This effectively solves all the shortcomings of the Gauss method.

Third, stochastic simulation (simulation). .

Kriging method completes the spatial patterns of perception, but couldn't make it. By kriging method, you can get the unique results of estimation and extreme points are smooth. According to the definition of random variables, each variable can have multiple realities, i.e. each unknown point valuation can have a variety of circumstances, provided that the correctness of the general trend, the stochastic simulation. Stochastic simulation can utilize a variety of different types of data (such as "hard" sampling point data, the "soft" seismic data) reproduction of a known pattern. "Hard data" refers to the sampling points for the accurate measurement of the value of the variable. "Soft data" refers to the variable on the various types of indirect measurements. Stochastic simulation can generate a large number of reality, and every reality show the same pattern, but different manifestations. In the single-variable distribution models, random variables through a series of statistical results of the uncertainty, and this is similar to a series of randomly generated reality, as the input also can express the output uncertainty. The reality is that such random probability, that not a single reality is the best. .

Four or more point geostatistics (multi-point geostatistics).

The development of multi-point geostatistics mainly due to statistics in the oil fields. Early, geostatistics and more problems for coal, through massive valuations recoverable reserves. However, the oil storage area in the study, one finds a point of penetration alone is meaningless, and should be viewed permeability flow point of view the problem. This makes the permeability of the connectivity or spatial pattern of quantization than get a local point of exact values is more important than smooth estimation. With coal the traditional geostatistics scientific thinking, the use variance function to quantify the spatial pattern.But the variogram only metric space between two points, so the performance of spatial pattern of a great limitation. For relevance is very strong, or the study of objects with more obvious characteristics of the curve, then in order to quantify the spatial pattern needs to contain more than one space. In image analysis, through more templates or window to quantify the pattern. Aware of the variation in expression limitations of geological continuity, and statisticians will image analysis of reference, a new field in geostatistics rising: multi-point geostatistics.

Geostatistical simulation of the original, including cognitive and reproduction of two parts. Cognitive function through mutation to be done which reproduce by sequential Gaussian simulation of multiple realities to complete. Multi-point geostatistics to further improve the cognitive part, through multiple points of the training images to replace the variance function more effectively reflect the spatial distribution of target structure. For image analysis, the only focus of cognition, but no representation function. .

Multi point geostatistics core training images. Because in geostatistics in there too much information, but have never been quantified, and general information implied by the model applied to specific problems. However, as by way of the image, the original data can be fully quantified all order information, we may use non-conditional Boolean method to get the training images.

This method mainly in the oil fields raises the question, and therefore mainly used in this area. Including the theory itself, but also need to be further improved. .

Geostatistics-GIS.


GIS is a spatial data collection, storage, retrieval, transformation, display and analysis of a technology. It will have the geographic coordinates of the data as a thematic layer, or map the document to manage. As a powerful database system, which has the same spatial area can store a variety of thematic information. Edited and manipulated the spatial data, GIS software for existing is not a problem, but the distribution pattern of spatial data modeling, extract its features is still lacking. It requires as geological statistics (geostatistics) statistical package such spatial analysis.Geostatistics in recent years, rapid development at the international level, in particular the development of GIS, spatial analysis introduced a new request, geostatistics become more subject focus of attention. But so far, the medicine is also very small or very lacking. As a major software ArcGis, version from 8 later joined the expansion modules, of which there are statistics. But the content is limited to the Keurig series method for the simulation. Therefore, the future of both will be an inevitable trend. A more efficient way is to use component to the idea of geostatistical software embedded within GIS software. This combination method should take into account the integration of the two had different systems, so slightly tedious, and the relationship between the two is more loose. However, the current strong demand for this is undoubtedly a better and more economical way. .

Got a few King TM5 data, it is estimated that the production data problems in general Import Erdas, Landsat TM EOSAT Fast Format to import the coordinates and projection after all not, modify the Erdas in ellipsoid Krassovsky ellipsoid setting, or not. We're at a half-day, or get out. Calls to the cc, cc is doubling down get through that, to a solution.

1. . ENVI open header. . Dat, then Edit ENVI Header-> Edit Attributes-> map info-> Change Proj-> Datum-> select WGS84 (the difference between the two coordinates of less than one meter, so, this datum; here I have done modify, ENVI4. .4 no Krossovsky, so add this into an ellipsoid, the details see "ENVI add custom coordinate"). .

2. The dat data output to Tiff format.

3. . At this point in the Tiff image unit is NA, the modeling tool in Erdas, Save image, menu set Cell Size to 30m (cc more vigorous, and rewrite the script file model, admired the) output. .

4. Info window to modify projection information.

At this point you can see the image opens a normal slope shape, than when the Qing Xieduo NA unit bigger some (this issue download the data in the USGS would be met, Tong Yang Save to save processing can change the shape, or direct Save). First, radiometric calibration. .

1. Because ENVI 4. .4 has specialized for radiometric calibration modules, so the actual operation is very simple. The original open TM, the choice.


Basic Tools-Preprocessing-Calibration Utilities-Landsat TM. .

2. The next step parameters choose: may choose according to the sensor type choose Landsat 4, 5 or 7. From remote sensing image in the header file for Data Acquisition, Sun elevation. If you are using the File – Open External File – Landsat – Fast way to open a .dat, header. elevation on the sun has been prepared. Here Calibration Type attention to the selection for the Radiance. Output file, the calibration is complete. .


2. atmospheric correction.

Simpler atmospheric correction can be used ENVI's FLAASH module, the following is FLAASH operation steps:. .


1. FLAASH module access method is the Spectral – FLAASH, or Basic Tools – Preprocessing – Calibration Utilities – FLAASH.

2. . FLAASH module interface is divided into three: Set the top of input and output files; the middle set sensor parameters; lower set of atmospheric parameters. .

3. First, set the input and output files. FLAASH module requires you to enter a radiance image output reflectivity images. Before we had a radiometric calibration, radiance image, where you want to put the BSQ image formats converted to BIL or BIP format image, and then select Image Radiance Input conversion format images. (Basic Tools–Convert Data(BSQ,BIL,BIP))。 Here note that when the input image, the program lets you choose Scale Factor, the original radiance radiance units and between units ENVI default ratio. ENVI default radiance units μW/cm2 ? sr ? nm, but before we do when the radiometric calibration unit is W/m2 ? sr ? μm, the ratio between the conversion is 10, so the following chart to select Single scale factor, completing 10. .000. .

4. In addition, if a Landsat TM image in the header file information that does not have a band here also requires that you provide a .txt file to contain. "this information. Then, prepare a .txt file., that contains one column for each band TM Center wavelength.

5. . In the Output Reflectance File and the Output Directory for FLAASH files which set the output file name and location. .

6. Set the sensor parameters. First Scene, the Center Location remote image Center coordinates, as well as the Flight Time, Flight Date GMT, which all three can be found in the TM in the header file to find and fill.

7. . In the Sensor Type menu, select Landsat TM5. At this point Sensor altitude automatically fill in for the 705km. The Pixel Size filling the 30m. .

8. According to the research area of remote sensing images, fill out the actual situation, such as the Ground Elevation of the North China plain can be written as 0. .05km.

9. . The most critical part for the atmospheric parameters:. .


A) Atmospheric Model (atmospheric model): a total of Sub-Arctic Winter (SAW), Mid-Latitude Winter (MLW) .S, U.. Standard (US), Sub-Arctic Summer (SAS), Summer (MLS) Mid-Latitude and Tropical (T). According to the latitude and longitude and time can be selected for the study area, see ENVI atmospheric models Help . .


B) of the Aerosol Model (aerosol model): Rural, Urban, Maritime and Tropospheric four choices. According to the actual situation of choice. With regard to the four modes of interpretation Help seeing ENVI.


c) When we choose to TM, the optional parameters are Aerosol Retrieval and Initial Visibility. These two parameters on the final result has a very important video, so best to investigate the local Initial Visibility.In addition, there are worldwide AERONET determination of AOD (Atmospheric Optical Depth) of the site, you can query the AOD then converted to extinction coefficient, the adoption of the extinction coefficient estimation of visibility, this step is cumbersome, this will not be elaborated. If you use Aerosol Retrieval algorithm of calculation in K-T Visibility and be able to calculate the results, then use K-T algorithm visibility, no..


Initial Visibility is specified by the visibility. .


D) Aerosol Retrieval. If you select the drop-down menu of K-T method, then you need to set the parameter Settings in Multispectral, Assign Default Values Based on Conditions in the select Retrieval Over-land Retrieval Standard (660: 2100nm). According to the different research areas can set a different mode. Can not change other settings. Apply can. .

Gauss-Kruger projection images, turn the projection is not successful, open the file info without reference ellipsoid information, go to "projection appears Proparameter not found" error message prompt.

Solution: Open the message window, modify Projection: center longitude into the corresponding value (49 with the 111 °), false easting for the 500,000 meter. Save projector, conversion, OK. .

The following is reproduced in a variety of geographic information system of distinction and conversion summary.

1, Beijing, Xi'an 80 54 coordinates to the coordinate conversion summary. .


1, Beijing and Xian 80 54 are two different geodetic datum, different reference ellipsoid, thus two maps, the coordinates of a point is different, whether it is three degrees with six degrees of latitude and longitude coordinates with coordinates or are different.


2, obtained after digitization is not WGS84 coordinates of latitude and longitude coordinates, because the conversion parameters 54 and 80 has not released the software in general are not 54 or 80 projection system option, often choose to WGS84 projection. .


3, WGS84, Beijing, Xian 80 54, there is no ready-made formulas to complete the conversion.


4, for 54 or 80 coordinates from latitude and longitude coordinates to the plane (with three or six degrees with) each other conversion can be completed using the software. .


5, 54 and 80 of the conversion, you must use an existing point and two-coordinate transformation parameters into account, and then convert the coordinates to be converted are treated. (Both rely on software implementations).


6, the choice of reference point, be careful not to select the rivers, contours, place names, elevation points, roads not vote as much as possible. These vary greatly in the two maps can not be used as a reference. The implant should be chosen, such as power plants, bridges. .

Second, the coordinate system and Beijing Xian 80 54 coordinate system transformation.


Xi'an 80 coordinate system and the Beijing 54 coordinate system is a kind of ellipsoid parameters of the conversion as the conversion in the same ellipsoid in the conversion are strict, but in a different transition between ellipsoid is not tight, so does not exist a set of conversion parameters can be spoken throughout the country, in every place will be different, because they are two different reference ellipsoid.Then, two ellipsoidal coordinate conversion between generally compares closely with seven parameters, namely, the Chief Ersha model X Y pan, Pan, Pan, rotate Z (WX) X, y (WY), and Z rotation (WZ), scale (DM). Demands were seven parameters you need in one area in need of more than 3 known points. If the area is too small, the distance between the farthest point of no more than 30Km (experience value), which can be used three parameters, namely, X Pan, Y Pan, Z translation and rotation to X, Y Rotation, Z Rotation, scale DM surface as 0. .


Platform in MAPGIS:.


The first step: to the local Bureau of Surveying and Mapping (or elsewhere) to find the three common points in the region coordinates (ie 54 coordinates x, y, z and 80 coordinates x, y, z);. .


Step 2: Add three point coordinates on all converted to radians. (Menu: the projection transformation/enter single point projection transformations to compute the three points of the radian value and recorded).


The third step: seeking common point demand operating parameters (menu: Projection Conversion / Coordinate System Transformation). If you find the conversion coefficient after the record. .


Step four: Edit coordinate conversion coefficients. (Menu: a projection conversion/editing coordinates conversion factor. ) Finally, the projection transformation, "the current projection" enter 80 coordinate system parameters, enter the "purpose of projection" 54 coordinate system parameters. When you convert the system will automatically call has edited coordinate conversion factor.

Third, geographic coordinates and projection coordinates difference. .


1. first of all understand the geographic coordinate system (Geographic coordinate system), the Geographic coordinate system for the transliteration of geographical coordinates to latitude and longitude, to map storage units. Obviously, the Geographic coordinate system is a spherical coordinate system. We want the Earth to the digital information stored on a spherical coordinate system, how does it work? Earth is an irregular ellipsoid, how the data is stored information to the scientific method to ellipsoidal ball? This necessarily requires that we find such an ellipsoid. This ellipsoid has the features: quantifiable terms. With a long axle, short. .


Half axle, eccentricity. The following lines would be Krasovsky_1940 ellipsoid and its corresponding parameter.


Spheroid: Krasovsky_1940. .


Semimajor Axis: 6378245。.000000000000000000 。.


Semiminor Axis: 6356863. .018773047300000000. .


Inverse Flattening (flat rate): 298. .300000000000010000.


However, there is not enough after this ellipsoid, also need a base level this earth ellipsoid orientation. Description in the coordinate system, you can see so line:. .


Datum: D_Beijing_1954 。.


That the earth datum is D_Beijing_1954. .


A Spheroid and Datum two basic conditions, the geographic coordinates system can use.


Integrity parameters:. .


Alias: 。.


Abbreviation:. .


Remarks: 。.


Angular Unit: Degree (0. .017453292519943299). .


Prime Meridian (longitude of start): Greenwich (0. .000000000000000000).


Datum (geodetic datum): D_Beijing_1954. .


Spheroid (reference ellipsoid): Krasovsky_1940.


Semimajor Axis: 6378245. .000000000000000000. .

Semiminor Axis: 6356863。.018773047300000000 。.


Inverse Flattening: 298. .300000000000010000. .


2, the next is the Projection coordinate system (projection coordinate system), first take a look at the projection coordinate some of the parameters in the system.


Projection: Gauss_Kruger. .


Parameters: 。.


False_Easting: 500000. .000000. .


False_Northing: 0。.000000 。.


Central_Meridian: 117. .000000. .


Scale_Factor: 1。.000000 。.


Latitude_Of_Origin: 0. .000000. .


Linear Unit: Meter (1。.000000) 。.


Geographic Coordinate System:. .


Name: GCS_Beijing_1954 。.


Alias:. .


Abbreviation: 。.


Remarks:. .


Angular Unit: Degree (0。.017453292519943299) 。.


Prime Meridian: Greenwich (0. .000000000000000000). .


Datum: D_Beijing_1954 。.


Spheroid: Krasovsky_1940. .


Semimajor Axis: 6378245。.000000000000000000 。.


Semiminor Axis: 6356863. .018773047300000000. .


Inverse Flattening: 298。.300000000000010000 。.


As can be seen from the parameters of each projector coordinate system will invariably Geographic Coordinate System. .


Projection coordinate system is, in essence, the plane coordinate system, the map units typically m.


So why should exist in the projection coordinate system coordinate system arguments? . .


At this time, but also to explain the significance of the projection: spherical coordinates into plane coordinates the process is called a projection.


Well, the projection conditions on the out:. .


A, spherical coordinates.


b, conversion (ie, algorithm). .


In other words, to get the projection coordinates must have a "fetch" projection of the sphere coordinates, and then you can use the algorithm to projection!.


That each of projected coordinate system must require Geographic Coordinate System parameters. .


3, we are seeing a lot of teaching materials on the coordinate system of the title a lot, you can boil down to these two projection. Including our popular "non-earth projection coordinate system". ）： 。.


Geodetic coordinates (Geodetic Coordinate): Geodesy by reference ellipsoid for the datum of the coordinates. The location of the ground point P with the earth longitude L, the earth and the earth high-latitude H B said. When the point of reference ellipsoid surface, the only earth longitude and latitude, said the earth. Earth longitude is the point of the earth through the initial meridian plane and the angle between the meridian plane earth, earth latitude is normal through the point of the angle between the equatorial plane, the earth ground point along the normal high is to the reference ellipsoid distance. .


Party in the net: is parallel to the projection axis in the two sets of parallel lines of the grid. Because every whole km drawn coordinates bar and horizontal coordinates, so called party in the network, because the party line is also in parallel to the Cartesian axis coordinates the network cable, also known as the grid.


In the 1:1 million - 1:20 million scale topographic map, longitude and latitude profiles only in order to directly manifested in the form and note in Figure corner of the corresponding degrees. To encrypt a network with the chart, profile between the inside and outside the plan also painted the encryption partition encryption Jingwei network short-term (Schema "the dividing zone"), if necessary, can be connected to the corresponding short-term latitude and longitude lines form an encrypted network . 1:2 50 000 topographic maps, other than within the map outline on the painted warp and weft mesh partition encryption, the maps are encrypted using the cross line. .


Our 1: 50 000-1: 100 000 topographical map, in the direct draw knit line screen, also within the margin for the encrypted encryption and weft wire mesh partition dash.


Cartesian coordinate system to network projections of the central meridian line for the X-axis to the equator after the straight line projection Y-axis, the intersection of the coordinates of their origin. This coordinate system appeared in four quadrants. Counting from the equator north ordinate is positive, south negative; horizontal counting from the central meridian, eastward positive, westward negative. .


Although we can think in networks is the rectangular square, geodetic coordinates is spherical coordinates. But we're a topographic map treated sq networks and longitude network, we are accustomed to call the latitude and longitude coordinates for geodetic network, this time by the geodetic coordinates, spherical coordinates are not her and party in the network of projection is the same (usually a Gauss), the horizontal coordinates.

Fourth, GIS in the coordinate system definition and transformation. .


1. Ellipsoids, map datum and projection.


GIS is defined in the coordinate system based on GIS systems, GIS systems correctly define the coordinate system is very important. GIS in the coordinate system defined by the datum and map projection parameters of the two groups determined by the specific definition of the datum ellipsoid and the corresponding conversion parameter determination, the definition of GIS systems wishing to correct coordinate system, we must first understand the earth ellipsoid sphere (Ellipsoid), the geodetic datum (Datum) and the map projection (Projection) the three basic concepts and the relationships between them. .

Datum is the use of specific ellipsoid to specific areas of the Earth's surface approximation, each country has its own reference plane, we generally appellation of Beijing Xian 80 54 coordinate system, actually refers to the coordinate system of the country's two geodetic datum plane. My reference to the former Soviet Union from 1953 onwards Crasovschi (Krassovsky) ellipsoid established a coordinate system in China, Beijing 54, 1978 by International Association of Geodesy in 1975 recommended the establishment of the earth ellipsoid earth of our new coordinate system - - Xi'an 80 coordinate system, Beijing is still present 54 geodetic coordinate system essentially as a reference, Beijing, Xi'an 80 coordinate 54 with the conversion between the National Mapping Bureau of available published tables.WGS1984 Datum WGS84 ellipsoid used, it is a geocentric coordinate system, i.e. geocentric as Ellipsoids Center, the how of GPS survey data to WGS1984..


The three ellipsoid parameters are as follows:. .


Ellipsoid and Datum is a one-to-many relationship, the Datum is based on the ellipsoid, ellipsoid cannot represent the reference plane, the same ellipsoid can define different base surface, such as the former Soviet Union, Pulkovo 1942, Africa Somalia Afgooye Datum are Krassovsky ellipsoid, but their datum is obviously different.


Map projection is to convert the map from the sphere to the plane of the mathematical transformation, if someone said: Beijing 54 coordinate value of the point X = 4231898, Y = 21655933, actually refers to the projection under Beijing 54 coordinate datum, which is Beijing latitude and longitude coordinates under 54 datum plane in the Cartesian coordinates of the projection results. .


2. GIS in the Datum definition and conversion.


While all the existing GIS platform with hundreds of predefined base level for the user to choose from, but did not define our national datum. If less precision, can make use of the former Soviet Union in the Pulkovo 1942 datum (Mapinfo in the code for the 1001) instead of Beijing 54 coordinate system; if high precision, such as land use, marine use, urban infrastructure, the GIS system, you need to self- defined datum. .


GIS system base-level through local Datum conversion oriented WGS1984 7 parameters to define the conversion through a similar transformation method implementation specific algorithm can refer to the scientific press, 1999, published by the town of geographic information systems standardization Guide No. 76 to 86 pages. Suppose Xg, Yg, Zg WGS84 geocentric coordinate system, said coordinate axis, Xt, Yt, Zt, said local coordinate axis coordinate system, then customize the base level of seven parameters were: three translation parameters ΔX, ΔY, ΔZ that the value of the two coordinates of the origin of the translation; three rotation parameters εx, εy, εz said to the local coordinate system rotation is parallel with the geocentric coordinate system, respectively, around the Xt, Yt, Zt of the rotation angle; Finally, the ratio correction factor, with to adjust the size of ellipsoid. .


MapX is defined in the base-level methods are as follows:.


Datum. . Set (Ellipsoid, ShiftX, ShiftY, ShiftZ, RotateX, RotateY, RotateZ, ScaleAdjust, PrimeMeridian). .


One of the parameters: Ellipsoid for the Datum used Ellipsoids;.


ShiftX, ShiftY, ShiftZ for the translation parameters;. .


RotateX, RotateY, RotateZ rotation parameters;.


ScaleAdjust the proportional correction factor, a millionth of a meter;. .


PrimeMeridian as the Prime Meridian longitude, in our country from 0, which indicates that the starting from Greenwich longitude.


National Mapping Agency (National Imagery and Mapping Agency) published the most of the world's local datum to datum conversion WGS1984 3 parameters (translation parameters), available from http://164. .214. .2. .59/GandG/wgs84dt/dtp. . Html download, including the base level of Hong Kong Hong Kong 1963, Taiwan Hu-Tzu-Shan datum conversion of 3 parameters, but no parameters in mainland China. .


Practical work is generally based on the work area known Beijing 54 points calculation of coordinates transformation parameters, if the work area have enough known WGS84 coordinates in Beijing with 54 points directly to the calculation of coordinates transformation 7 parameters or 3 parameter; when the work area, there are three known WGS84 coordinates in Beijing with 54 points, you can calculate the coordinates WGS84 to Beijing 54 transformation parameters (A, B, C, D, E, F): x54 = AX84 + BY84 + C, y54 = DX84 + EY84 + F, extra point used for testing; in only one case of known points (often), with a known point 54 and WGS84 coordinates in Beijing as the difference between the parameters as a translation, when the workspace is not large enough precision . .


From Mapinfo's URL (http://www. .com .cn .mapinfo../download) available for download to Beijing, Xian, 54 80 coordinate system defined Mapinfow. .prj file, which defines the Beijing 54 Datum parameter is: (3, 24,-123,-94,-0. .02, 0.0. .25, .13, 1.1, 0), Xian 80 Datum parameter (31, 24,-123,-94,-0. .02, 0.0. .25, .13, 1. 1,0), the document does not indicate the source of its parameters, I found them Mapinfo Reference Appendix G "to define custom datum" an example of parameters set out in the same, so its reliability is questionable, especially from the Xi'an Beijing 54, 80 and 7 parameters with the same view, at least 80 of the datum definition of Xi'an is definitely wrong. Therefore, when the system accuracy is high, be sure to test the parameters used to verify and ensure the correctness of the definition of coordinate system. .

3. GIS in the definition of a map projection.


China's basic scale topographic maps (1:5 1000, 1:1 million, 1:2..5 000, 1: 50 000, 1: 10 000, 1: 25 000, 1: 50 000, 1: 100 000), greater than or equal to half a million uses the Gauss-Kruger projection (Gauss-Kruger), also known as Transverse Mercator projection (Transverse Mercator); less than 50 000 topographic map with secant projection cone, also known as LAN-Bo-projection (Lambert Conformal Conic); the sea is less than 50 000 topographic maps more normal cylindrical projection, also known as Mercator projection (Mercator), should be used in GIS and the basic scale topographic map series of consistent map projection system . .


The coordinate system defined in the MapX by datum and projection parameters consist of two parts, as follows:.


CoordSys. . Set (Type, [Datum], [Units], [OriginLongitude], [OriginLatitude],..


[StandardParallelOne], [StandardParallelTwo], [Azimuth], [ScaleFactor], 。.


[FalseEasting], [FalseNorthing], [Range], [Bounds], [AffineTransform]). .


One of the parameters: Type indicates the type of projection Type 1 map coordinates to latitude and longitude, it is a required parameter, which is followed by the parameters are optional parameters.


Datum datum for the earth object, if the use of non-Earth coordinates (NonEarth) do not define the parameters;. .


Units to coordinate unit, such as Units of 7 expressed in meters;.


OriginLongitude, OriginLatitude origin of longitude and latitude, respectively;. .


StandardParallelOne, StandardParallelTwo for first, second, standard Parallels;.


Azimuth Azimuth is inclined axis projection need to define the parameters;. .


ScaleFactor; for scaling factors.


FalseEasting, FalseNorthing pseudo-offset for the East, North pseudo-offset;. .


Visible for latitude Range; map.


Bounds for the map coordinates of range, is a rectangular object, non-Earth coordinates (NonEarth) must define the parameters;. .


AffineTransform object to coordinate system transformation.


The corresponding Gauss - Kruger projection, Lambert projection, Mercator projection parameters need to define the coordinate system sequences are as follows:. .


Gauss-Kruger projection code (Type), Datum (Datum), units (Unit).


Central longitude (OriginLongitude), origin latitude (OriginLatitude),. .


Scale factor (ScaleFactor).


East pseudo-offset (FalseEasting), latitude offset (FalseNorthing). .


LAN Bo-: projection code (Type), Datum (Datum), units (Unit).


Central longitude (OriginLongitude), origin latitude (OriginLatitude),. .


Standard 1 (StandardParallelOne) latitude, latitude standard (StandardParallelTwo), 2.


East pseudo-offset (FalseEasting), latitude offset (FalseNorthing). .


Mercator: projection code (Type), Datum (Datum), units (Unit).


Origin longitude (OriginLongitude), origin latitude (OriginLatitude),. .


Standard dimensions (StandardParallelOne).


GIS systems in the city are used 6 degrees or 3 degrees minutes with the Gauss - Kruger projection, because the general urban construction coordinates with the 6 degrees or 3 degrees minutes with the Gauss - Kruger projection coordinates.. .


If your workspace is located at longitude 21 belt, that is, at 120 degrees to 126 degrees range, the band's central longitude 123 °, Pulkovo 1942 datum, then define 6 ° zonation of Gauss-Kruger projection coordinate system parameters (8, 1001, 7,123, 0, 0, 1, 21500000).


那么当精度要求较高，实测数据为WGS1984坐标数据时，欲转换到北京54基准面的高斯-克吕格投影坐标，如何定义坐标系参数呢？你可选择WGS 1984(Mapinfo中代号104)作为基准面，当只有一个已知控制点时(见第2部分)，根据平移参数调整东伪偏移、北纬偏移值实现WGS84到北京54的转换，如: (8，104，7，123，0，1，21500200，-200)，也可利用 AffineTransform坐标系变换对象,此时的转换系数(A、B、C、D、E、F)中A、B、D、E为0，只有X、Y方向的平移值C、F ；当有3个已知控制点时，可利用得到的转换系数(A、B、C、D、E、F)定义 AffineTransform坐标系变换对象，实现坐标系的转换，如：(8，104，7，123，0，1，21500000，0，map. .AffineTransform AffineTransform), which is defined as the AffineTransform. .set (7, A, B, C, D, E, F) (7 indicates the unit m); there are certainly enough known points, direct determination 7 parameter custom datum. ".


userData (BEHAVIOR. . Url (# default # userdata)). .

cann't find ***。.pch 。.

3) Unexpected end while looking for precompiled header. .


At this point because the module is not included in the precompiled header file ".h" stdafx...


VC with a stdafx. . Cpp contains the header files stdafx. . H, then stdafx. . H in header files contain most of the system, this. .


When you compile the sample by compiling stdafx VC. .cpp most system header files precompiled came in, there are in the Debug directory.


* A large file. . Pch, where a pre-compiled information on the store. .


According to this principle, if the pch is corrupted or is deleted, the system to be recompiled when complaining about the "cannot open.


precompiled header file debug / *. . Pch ". Then how solve this problem, open the Project-"..


Setting the dialog box selected C + + page Category drop-down list box select Precompiled Headers, the simplest.


Way is to select the first option "Not using..", So do not have to pre-compiled header not to find pch file. .


Would not be wrong, but the consequences of doing so is each compile, connection of more time.


Can also choose the second option "Automatic..", Then "Through header" power to fill stdafx. . H, so. .


If you do not have a pch file system automatically generates a pch, if any, in respect of the use of the pch, this option is more ".


Intelligence "..


The third option is forced to create a pch file, a fourth option is to use a pch file directly. Of course "Through.


headers "are filled in stdafx.. h the..

With a little trick:.


If you compile the total connection time out error or debugging strange step through the code is not going to be in his thoughts. .

Because your connection is generally chosen to incremental linking, each time increased by one point, bring a previous error.


Things left out in connection executable file of the. As complete re-build, connect it again. .

mfcs42d。.lib(dllmodul。.obj) : error LNK2005: _DllMain@12 already defined in MSVCRTD。.lib(dllmain。.obj)。.


mfcs42d. . Lib (dllmodul.. Obj): warning LNK4006: _DllMain @ 12 already defined in MSVCRTD. . Lib (dllmain.. Obj); second definition ignored. .


Solution:.


The fix is very simple, just do the following. .


1）Select BUILD|SETTINGS。.


2) In the left hand pane highlight WIN32 Debug. .


3）Go to the LINK tab。.


4) Select the INPUT 'category'. .


5）in the edit box labeled "Ignore Libraries" 。.


type the following two libs. .


MSVCRTD。.lib, mfcs42d。.lib (order doesn't matter _here_)。.


6) Now in the edit box labeled "Object / Library Modules" type the following two libs. .


mfcs42d。.lib, MSVCRTD。.lib。.


MAKE SURE THEY ARE IN THIS ORDER AND THEY ARE LISTED AS THE FIRST & SECOND LIBS IN THE EDIT BOX. .


7）rebuild and all should be fine。. Basically what you did was tell the linker to skip the implied inclusion of these libs, and then manually told it to include them in the specific order mentioned。.


CRT library for the new, delete, and DllMain function uses weak external links. As the MFC libraries also contain new, delete, and DllMain function, so that requires first link MFC library, and then linked CRT library. .


Workaround:.


project-> setting-> link ignore libraries filled mfcs42d. . Lib MSVCRTD. . Lib, then the object / libraries modules fill mfcs42d. . Lib MSVCRTD. . Lib to enforce the order by the connection. Note that in order not to mistake. .


These are the VC ++ 6. 0 approach, .net 2003 VS. the Additional Dependencies.

To use a function written in Matlab files can be compiled independently of the *. . Exe files (you can out of Matalab environmental enforcement procedures), first installed and configured Matlab Compiler, in general, when you install Matlab already installed the appropriate version of the Matlab Compiler. Just different versions of Matlab, to use its compiler has some differences that should cause some attention. .

In determining the Matlab Compiler installed, also need to make the appropriate configuration Compiler the Matlab command window enter:.

Mbuild-setup. .

And then when you are prompted to perform the appropriate actions that users can choose according to their own computer existing compiler selects the appropriate compiler, such as VC ++ 6. .0, VC ++ 7. .0, Bland C compiler, Matlab seemed not support VC ++ 8. .0 (my computer Setup is VC ++ 2005, Matlab was not recognized). Of course, if your computer simply had not installed any other language compiler can choose Lcc compiler that comes with Matlab, in fact, the compiler has been good enough for most users (I am the choice that comes with Matlab Lcc compiler). .

Configured compiler, nature is to write your own file for compilation of M.

M files to compile as a separate executable file syntax is:. .

>>mcc –m fun1。.m fun2。.m…。.

(** Fun1.. M ... ... is a function file). .

Which is the last fun1 name of the executable file.

In addition, can also be specified using the command switch-o build the ultimate goal of the file name, such as mcc-m main. . M-o mrank_main, is to compiled files designated as mrank_main. . Exe. .

The compiled file is generated under the compiler version. Specific relevant information can be found.

If you want to install matlab in the absence of a computer implementation of the compiled program, first of all to \ MATLAB701 \ toolbox \ compiler \ deploy \ win32 in MCRinstaller. . Exe install to the computer (7. .0 Previous version is mglinstaller.. Exe). .

Secondly, it is necessary to be "MCRinstaller. .exe installation directory path add \runtime\win32" into the computer's environment variables, add:.

Right-click "My Computer" "Properties" "Advanced" "environment variable" "add" to specify a variable name, and then copy the path to the inside on it. .

The third step is to compile the generated phase related copying the files to the same directory (the directory can also, of course, other).

The fourth step is to open the MS-dos operating window and into the compiled *. . Exe program directory where the * implementation of compiler generated. . Exe files. .

I should note a problem:.

If your program also included a picture (such as the Version on the icon), Web page (such as the help documentation), at compile time may not be compiled together with the M file (because I have not tried nor seen in this area introduction), it did not matter, the first time you run a computer generated independently compiled executable file, then in the same directory will generate a compiled program in your name + _mcr at the end of the folder, then you just put the icon associated with the procedure and copies of Web pages to the folder Matlabprogram following a subdirectory (usually used for the compilation of the same folder name) in the can。.

Other methods include: (The following is a method of online search, there is no tested, interested friends can try). .

Method one: matlab workspace fight under the comtool, point file-open project will we have previously built comtest. .cbl project file open, and then point the component--package component packaging, to the folder view comtest\distrib generated comtest. .exe is packaged after unzip program, double-click it to extract some files, then click on the extract from _install. installation of bat can be achieved. .

Method 2: how to generate exe? gui.

Have gui. . M file and the gui. . Fig file. .

1 in the MATLAB command window to enter.

mcc-B sgl GUI. . M. .

2. will step generated files include *. .m file and * .fig files Khao. to run the machine.

Matlab still necessary at this time the dynamic link library. .

3. Will.


/ Extern/lib/win32/mglinstallar. . Exel to be copied to the running machine. .

4. on the machine running the .exe mglinstallar. first, and then select the extracted directory, specify a directory to extract the bin and toolbox, the two subdirectories bin\win32 directory is math libraries and graphics library from MATLAB to run all of the dynamic link library, 37. You can enter these. .dll system32, can also be placed directly in the application directory. The toolbox directory must be the same directory as the application.

5. .'re Done. .

Method 3: run the mcc-B .m sgl GUI., build exe. .exe file and GUI GUI. .ctf copying the files to the target computer, and then installed on the target computer, the installation .exe MCRInstaller. after I click on GUI, it displays the .exe.: this application has requested the Runtime to terminate it in an unusual way. This may be what went wrong then? . .

Solution: 。.

The segmentation violation can be caused due to a corruption in either the profile of the current user or by corrupted Windows libraries. .In order to determine which is the cause, try logging in as a different username and run MATLAB。.

If you are able to successfully launch MATLAB under a different username:. .

1. Log onto the machine, as the user that is receiving the error。.

2. . On your desktop, click on Start> Run. .

3. Type "regedit" in the Open text field and click OK, this will bring up the Registry Editor 。.

4. . In the Registry Editor expand the following folders: HKEY_CURRENT_USER> Software> MathWorks> Matlab. .

5. Under the MATLAB key, find the folder having the same name as the 。.

version number of the MATLAB that is crashing; and delete it. . This Registry key will be regenerated the next time MATLAB is started. .

Click on the link below to view an image of the Registry Editor, which shows how to delete a registry key for MATLAB 6。.5 (R13)。.

After following these steps, you should be able to launch MATLAB successfully. .

If MATLAB crashes regardless of the user who is logged in, the crash may be caused by corrupted system libraries。. For Windows NT, 2000, or XP, some customers have found that reinstalling Windows Service Packs have resolved the issue. .

This is when you start 6. .5 a similar bug workaround, you can try .0 7. success!.

On the coordinates and projection, and other reference Jetz summary, summarized as follows:. .

GIS coordinate systems generally have three: Plannar Coordinate System (plane coordinate system, or a Custom user-defined coordinate system), the Geographic Coordinate System (geographic coordinate system), Projection Coordinate System (projection coordinate system). Are not completely independent, each has its application characteristics. Such as the plane coordinate system is often in a small area does not need projection or coordinate transformation of the state, in Arcgis, the default open the data does not know the coordinate system information of the case are as Custom CS treatment, that is, plane coordinate system. The geographic coordinate system and projection coordinate system is interrelated, geographic coordinate system is the basis for one of the projection coordinate system. First, several basic concepts:. .

1, the reference ellipsoid (Ellipsoid).

Map coordinates from the geodetic datum and map projection to determine the earth ellipsoid datum is the use of certain specific areas of the Earth's surface is approaching, so each country or region have their own land base level, we usually title in Beijing 54 coordinate system , Xi'an 80 coordinate system is the fact that China's two land datum.My reference to the former Soviet Union from 1953 onwards uses Krasovsky (Krassovsky) ellipsoid established China Beijing 54 coordinate system, 1978 adopting International Geodetic Association recommended IAG 75 Earth ellipsoid establishes the coordinate system of the new Earth--Xi'an 80 coordinate system, the current GPS position is the result of WGS84 coordinate system, belonging to the WGS84 datum WGS84 ellipsoid used, it is a geocentric coordinate system, i.e. geocentric as Ellipsoids Center of coordinate system. Therefore relatively the same location, different geodetic datum, and their latitude and longitude coordinates are different. Ellipsoid with the three parameters are as follows (from the "Global Positioning System Surveying and GB / T 18314-2001"): the minor axis of ellipsoid long axle Hereford (1910) 63783886356911. .9461279 Krassovsky 6378245 6356863. .0188 IAG 75 6378140 6356755。.2882 WGS 84 6378137 。.

6356752. .3142. .

2, geodetic datum (Datum).

Geodetic datum ellipsoid and the relationship between the many relationship, that is, datum is based on the ellipsoid, but the ellipsoid can not represent the base level, the same ellipsoid can define different datum, such as former Soviet Union, Pulkovo 1942, Africa and Somalia's Afgooye datum are used Krassovsky ellipsoid, the geodetic datum, but they are clearly different.In the present GIS business software, geodetic datum plane through the local Datum WGS84 conversion oriented 7 parameters to define, i.e. three pan parameters Δ Δ X, Y, Z coordinates representing two Δ origin values; three rotation parameters ε ε x, y, and z represent the local coordinate system ε to geocentric coordinate systems in parallel with, respectively, around the Xt, Yt, Zt rotation angle; and, lastly, proportional correction factor that is used to adjust the size of the ellipsoid. Beijing 54, Xi'an 80 WGS84 transformation parameters relative has not open, practical work can make use of the work in the region known Xi'an Beijing 54 or 80 control points coordinates and WGS84 coordinates conversion, only a known control point in the case the next (often the case), with a known point with WGS84 coordinates Beijing 54 difference as translation parameters, when the work area is not big, such as Qingdao, accuracy is enough. .

(32 °, 121 °), Gauss-Kruger projection results, for example, Beijing 54 and WGS84 datum, which results in the North-South direction of the drop shadow gap of about 63 m, dozens or millions of maps, this error means nothing, but in the project map should be considered.

3 Gaussian projection (Gauss Projection). .

(1) the Gauss-Kruger projection properties.

Gauss - Kruger (Gauss-Kruger) projection referred to as "Gauss projection", also known as "conformal projection elliptical cross-section", the earth ellipsoid and the plane are in the form of a projection. German mathematician, physicist and astronomer Gauss (Carl FriedrichGauss, 1777 ~ 1855) developed in the nineteenth century, 20 years later by the German geodetic scientist Kruger (Johannes Kruger, 1857 ~ 1928) in 1912 be added to the projection formula, hence the name.The projection in accordance with the projection with the central meridian projection as a straight line length and Equatorial projection as lines of conditions, determine the form of a function, resulting in a Gauss-Kruger projection formulas. Projection, with the exception of the Central Meridian and the Equator as a line, the other radial symmetry in both the central meridian of the curve. Imagine an elliptic cylinder transverse to the ellipsoid projection with central meridian, according to the above projection conditions on both sides of the central meridian, the difference must be within the scope of the ellipsoid conformal projection on elliptic cylinder. The elliptic cylinder along the North and South poles of the bus has been cut out flat, i.e. for the plane. Take the intersection of Central Meridian and the equatorial projection of the origin, central meridian of the projection for the vertical x-axis, the equator of the projection for horizontal y-axis to form high Sikelvge Cartesian coordinates. .

Gauss-Kruger projection in length and area deformation is small, the central line of longitude deformation, since the central line of longitude to projection with a gradual increase in edge, distortion, deformation, the largest in projection band on both ends of the equator. Due to its projection and high precision, deformation of small, but a simple calculation (various projection with coordinates, as long as the one with the other data that can be applied with all), so in large scale application, you can meet the needs of the military on the map for accurate measurement calculations.

(2) Gauss - Kruger projection banding. .

The difference will be the Earth ellipsoid divided into a number of projection, this is the length of Gaussian projection limit deformation. Zonation of control when it is necessary to enable its deformation length does not exceed the value mapping errors, take the number will not be too much to reduce the heat exchanger with calculations, according to this principle would Earth ellipsoid along the meridian of divide the difference equal melon-shaped zone for zoning the projection. Usually the difference 6 ° or 3 degrees into degrees belt or third-degree zone. Six degrees from 0 ° Meridian from every economic difference 6 degrees from West belt, belt, published as no. 1, 2, ... 60. Three zone is divided into six degrees on the basis of band, and its central meridian and six degrees with the central meridian and the meridian points of coincidence with that from the 1. .5 Degree meridian from every error by 3 degrees from west to east sub-zone, with three degrees in order of series with the first band 1,2 ... 120. Our scope of west longitude 73 ° east 135 °, can be divided into six times with 11, followed by all with a central meridian 75 °, 81 °, 87 °, ... ..., 117 °, 123 °, 129 °, 135 ° , or three times with 22.Six degrees of belt can be used for small and medium-scale (such as 1: 250000) mapping, third-degree zone can be used for large scale (such as 1: 10000) mapping, coordinates the use of urban construction on three occasions with Gaussian projection.

(3) Gauss - Kruger projection coordinates. .

Gauss-Kruger projection are zoning method, each projection with coordinates into a stand-alone system. To the central axis of the warp projection for (x), Equatorial projection for the horizontal axis (y) and two axes intersection is the zone of origin. Ordinate in equator to zero from the equator is positive, negative to the South. China is located in the northern hemisphere, ordinate all positive. Abscissa in Central longitude zero line of longitude as central to the East to the West is positive, negative, negative horizontal, inconvenient requirement will coordinate axis transfer from 500 km as starting axis, where the abscissa values within the band are 500 km. Since Gauss - Kruger projection coordinates of each projection with all of this with the relative values of the coordinate origin, so each is identical with the coordinates, a coordinate system in order to distinguish which are brought in together with the horizontal axis coordinate ago number, such as (4231898m, 21655933m), which shall take No. 21. .

(4) the Gauss-Kruger projection and UTM projection.

Some foreign software such as ARC / INFO or foreign instrument supporting software such as multi-beam data processing software, etc., often do not support the Gauss - Kruger projection, but support the UTM projection, the UTM projection coordinates so often as high Sri Lanka - Kruger presented the phenomenon of projection coordinates. .

UTM projection known as the "Universal Transverse Mercator projection" is an isometric horizontal cutting cylindrical projection (Gauss-Kruger as isometric horizontal cutting cylindrical projection), cylindrical and cutting the Earth to 80 degrees south latitude, latitude 84 ° two other high ring, the projection of the Earth into 60 zones, each with a drop shadow by difference of 6 degrees, has been in many countries as the topographic map of the foundations of mathematics. Gauss projection UTM projection and the main difference between the North and the grid line scaling factors, Gauss-Kruger projection of Central projection length warp retains unchanged, i.e. the scale factor is 1, the proportion of the UTM projection coefficient 0. .9996. UTM projection along a north-south grid line of each scale factor is constant, in the east-west direction was variable, the center grid line scale factor is 0. .9996, In the north-south longitudinal edge of the widest part of about 363 km from the center of the ratio coefficient is 1. .00158. Gauss - Kruger projection and the UTM projection can be approximated by Xutm = 0. .9996 * X Gaussian, Yutm = 0. .9996 * Y Gaussian coordinate transformation. Input coordinates (degrees). .

Gaussian projection (m).

UTM projection (m) Xutm = 0. .9996 * X gauss. .


Yutm = 0. .9996 * Y Gaussian latitude value (X) 32 3543600. .9.

3542183. .5 3543600. .9 * 0. .9996 ≈ 3542183. .5 Longitude value (Y) 121. .

21310996. .8.

311 072. .4 (310 996. .8-500000) * 0. .9996 +500000 ≈ 311072. .4. .

Note: point coordinates (32,121) is located on the Gaussian projection 21 belt, Gaussian projection Y value 21310996. .8 in front of two "21" to number; coordinates (32,121) is located in the UTM projection of 51, in the table on the y value of the UTM projection didn't band number. Due to the vertical coordinate is shifted 500000 meters, the conversion must be Y value minus 500000 took the scale factor after 500000.

5. . Geographic Coordinates (Geographic coordinate system). .

Geographic coordinate system for the transliteration of geographical coordinates to latitude and longitude, to map storage units. Obviously, the Geographic coordinate system is a spherical coordinate system. We want to be the world's digital information is stored to a spherical coordinate system, how to do this? "the Earth is an irregular ellipsoid, how data information stored with a scientific approach to the ellipsoid? this requirement we find such an ellipsoid. This ellipsoid with features: quantifiable calculations. With a long axle, the minor axis, eccentricity. The following lines are Krasovsky_1940 ellipsoid and its corresponding parameters. .


Spheroid: Krasovsky_1940 。.


Semimajor Axis: 6378245. .000000000000000000. .


Semiminor Axis: 6356863。.018773047300000000 。.


Inverse Flattening (flat rate): 298. .300000000000010000. .


However with this ellipsoid later were not enough, you also need a geodetic datum surface of the ellipsoid. Stroke in the coordinate system.


Above, you can see so many line:. .


Datum: D_Beijing_1954 。.


That the earth datum is D_Beijing_1954. .


-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 。.


With the Spheroid and Datum two basic conditions, geographic coordinate system can use. .


Complete parameter.


Alias:. .


Abbreviation: 。.


Remarks:. .


Angular Unit: Degree (0。.017453292519943299) 。.


Prime Meridian (starting longitude): Greenwich (0. .000000000000000000). .


Datum (geodetic datum): D_Beijing_1954.


Spheroid (reference ellipsoid): Krasovsky_1940. .


Semimajor Axis: 6378245。.000000000000000000 。.


Semiminor Axis: 6356863. .018773047300000000. .


Inverse Flattening: 298。.300000000000010000 。.

6. . Projection coordinate system (projection coordinate system). .

First is the projection coordinate some of the parameters in the system.


Projection: Gauss_Kruger. .


Parameters: 。.


False_Easting: 500000. .000000. .


False_Northing: 0。.000000 。.


Central_Meridian: 117. .000000. .


Scale_Factor: 1。.000000 。.


Latitude_Of_Origin: 0. .000000. .


Linear Unit: Meter (1。.000000) 。.


Geographic Coordinate System:. .


Name: GCS_Beijing_1954 。.


Alias:. .


Abbreviation: 。.


Remarks:. .


Angular Unit: Degree (0。.017453292519943299) 。.


Prime Meridian: Greenwich (0. .000000000000000000). .


Datum: D_Beijing_1954 。.


Spheroid: Krasovsky_1940. .


Semimajor Axis: 6378245。.000000000000000000 。.


Semiminor Axis: 6356863. .018773047300000000. .


Inverse Flattening: 298。.300000000000010000 。.


As can be seen from the parameters of each projector coordinate system will invariably Geographic Coordinate System. .


Projection coordinate system is, in essence, the plane coordinate system, the map units typically m.


So why should exist in the projection coordinate system coordinate system arguments? . .


At this time, but also to explain the significance of the projection: spherical coordinates into plane coordinates the process is called a projection.


Well, the projection conditions on the out:. .


A, spherical coordinates.


b, conversion (ie, algorithm). .


In other words, to get the projection coordinates must have a "fetch" projection of the sphere coordinates, and then you can use the algorithm.


To the projector! . .


That is, each projection coordinate system must request a Geographic Coordinate System parameters.

7. . On Beijing and Xi'an 54 80 is our most widely used coordinate system. .

Briefly describes the Gauss-Kruger projection of basic knowledge and understanding to skip directly to our large and medium-scale maps are using Gauss-Kruger projection, which are normally 6 ° and 3 ° zonation of projection, 1: 2. .5 million-1: 50 000 scale topographic maps with difference 6 ° zonation, 1: 1, 000-scale topographic map with poor 3 ° zonation. Specific zoning method is: a 6 degree from the prime meridian, beginning with the 6 degrees by the difference with a projection from west to east division, the world is divided into 60 projection zone, with Nos. 1-60; 3 degrees projection with from 30 seconds to 1 degree east longitude meridian, beginning with the poor through a projector with 3 degrees from west to east division, the world is divided into 120 projection zone.In order to facilitate the measuring operations topographic maps, Gauss-Kruger projection band arrangement of a coordinate system by the Central Government, the Warp to the x-axis of the equator to the y axis, the central point for longitude and Equatorial coordinate origin, the x values in the northern hemisphere is positive, the southern hemisphere is negative, the y value in Central East longitude is positive, the central line of longitude West is negative. As a result of China's territory is in the northern hemisphere, the x value is positive, in order to avoid negative y-values that define the coordinates of the drop shadow with a vertical axis are arriving on the central line of longitude 500km original values from 0 to horizontal 500km. In order to facilitate inter-point position with distinction, in the horizontal position of each point y value of 100 km with where the band before the median number, such as 20 points, the coordinates of A band can be expressed as YA = 20 745 921. .8 M. .


Coordinate the Coordinate Systems\Projected Systems\Gauss Kruger\Beijing 1954 directory, we can see four different nomenclatures:.


Beijing 1954 3 Degree GK CM 75E. . Prj. .


Beijing 1954 3 Degree GK Zone 25。.prj。.


Beijing 1954 GK Zone 13. . Prj. .


Beijing 1954 GK Zone 13N。.prj。.


Description of them as follows:. .


Three degrees of separation method of Beijing 54 coordinate system, the central line of longitude East 75 degrees of horizontal coordinate, together with the band, before.


Zoning law three times in Beijing 54 coordinate system, the central meridian of 75 degrees in the East sub-zone coordinates, the horizontal band number preceded. .


Six degrees of separation method of Beijing 54, banding, is 13, horizontal band, before.


Six degrees of zoning law in Beijing 54 coordinate system, sub-band number is 13, the horizontal band number without prior. .


Coordinate the Coordinate Systems\Projected Systems\Gauss Kruger\Xian 1980 directory, file naming patterns also vary:.


Xian 1980 3 Degree GK CM 75E. . Prj. .


Xian 1980 3 Degree GK Zone 25。.prj。.


Xian 1980 GK CM 75E. . Prj. .


Xian 1980 GK Zone 13。.prj。.


Xi'an 80 coordinate file naming, meaning and Beijing, the first two coordinates of the same 54, but no "with No. + N" in this form. .

8. geodetic coordinates (Geodetic Coordinate).

Geodetic coordinates to geodetic reference ellipsoid in the coordinates for the datum. The location of the ground point P with the earth longitude L, the earth and the earth high-latitude H B said. When the point of reference ellipsoid surface, the only earth longitude and latitude, said the earth. Earth longitude is the point of the earth through the initial meridian plane and the angle between the meridian plane earth, earth latitude is normal through the point of the angle between the equatorial plane, the earth ground point along the normal high is to the reference ellipsoid distance. .


Party in the net: is parallel to the projection axis in the two sets of parallel lines of the grid. Because every whole km drawn coordinates bar and horizontal coordinates, so called party in the network, because the party line is also in parallel to the Cartesian axis coordinates the network cable, also known as the grid.


In the 1:1 million - 1:20 million scale topographic map, longitude and latitude profiles only in order to directly manifested in the form and note in Figure corner of the corresponding degrees. To encrypt a network with the chart, profile between the inside and outside the plan also painted the encryption partition encryption Jingwei network short-term (Schema "the dividing zone"), if necessary, can be connected to the corresponding short-term latitude and longitude lines form an encrypted network . 1:2 50 000 topographic maps, other than within the map outline on the painted warp and weft mesh partition encryption, the maps are encrypted using the cross line. .


Our 1: 50 000-1: 100 000 topographical map, in the direct draw knit line screen, also within the margin for the encrypted encryption and weft wire mesh partition dash.


Cartesian coordinate system to network projections of the central meridian line for the X-axis to the equator after the straight line projection Y-axis, the intersection of the coordinates of their origin. This coordinate system appeared in four quadrants. Counting from the equator north ordinate is positive, south negative; horizontal counting from the central meridian, eastward positive, westward negative. .


Although we can think in networks is the rectangular square, geodetic coordinates is spherical coordinates. But we're a topographic map treated sq networks and longitude network, we are accustomed to call the latitude and longitude coordinates for geodetic network, this time by the geodetic coordinates, spherical coordinates are not her and party in the network of projection is the same (usually a Gaussian projection), the horizontal coordinates.

Projection options:. .

Our basic scale topographic maps (1: 5, 1: 1 000, 1: 2. 50 000, 1:5 million, 1:10 million, 1:25 million, 1:50 million, 1:100 million), the greater than or equal to 50 million are used Gauss - Kruger projection (Gauss-Kruger) , also known as transverse Mercator projection (Transverse Mercator); less than 50 million used topographic maps are cutting garden cone axis isometric projection, also known as Lambert projection (Lambert Conformal Conic); sea less than 500,000 topographic map Multi-axis is conformal cylindrical projection, also known as Mercator projection (Mercator), China's GIS system should be used with our basic scale topographic map series of the same map projection system。.

80 and 54 on the conversion. .

1, Beijing and Xian 80 54 are two different geodetic datum, different reference ellipsoid, thus two maps, the coordinates of a point is different, whether it is three degrees with six degrees of latitude and longitude coordinates with coordinates or are different.


2, obtained after digitization is not WGS84 coordinates of latitude and longitude coordinates, because the conversion parameters 54 and 80 has not released the software in general are not 54 or 80 projection system option, often choose to WGS84 projection. .


3, WGS84, Beijing, Xian 80 54, there is no ready-made formulas to complete the conversion.


4, for 54 or 80 coordinates from latitude and longitude coordinates to the plane (with three or six degrees with) each other conversion can be completed using the software. .


5, 54 and 80 of the conversion, you must use an existing point and two-coordinate transformation parameters into account, and then convert the coordinates to be converted are treated. (Both rely on software implementations).


6, the choice of reference point, be careful not to select the rivers, contours, place names, elevation points, roads not vote as much as possible. These vary greatly in the two maps can not be used as a reference. The implant should be chosen, such as power plants, bridges. .